Cannabis, Classes and Castes

 

'The ruling classes, having no longer any reasonable justification for the advantageous position they hold, are obliged, in order to keep these positions, to repress their higher rational capacities and their love for their fellow-men, and to hypnotize themselves into the belief that their exceptional positions are necessary. And the lower classes, crushed by toil and intentionally stupefied, live in a continual condition of hypnotization, deliberately and incessantly induced by people of the upper classes.' 

 - The Kingdom of God and Peace Essays, Leo Tolstoy.

'Keep you doped with religion and sex and TV
And you think you're so clever and classless and free
But you're still fucking peasants as far as I can see'

- Working Class Hero, John Lennon

Classes and Castes

Class and caste are two different things. Most people do not get it, even Supreme Court judges like Bela Trivedi, the lone dissenting judge in the 6 to 1 verdict of the Supreme Court of India regarding the implementation of the 'creamy layer criterion' for deciding who among the backward castes is eligible for government benefits aimed at uplifting the poor. Class is based on economic criteria. The more money you have, the more upper class you are. Caste is based on social criteria. The priest-king-businessman-worker hierarchy, or Brahmin-Kshatriya-Vaishya-Sudra hierarchy, which is the caste system as we call it in India, was introduced by the caste-based religions that became established in India with the arrival of migrants from primarily Central Asia. The caste-based system was initially introduced to supposedly delineate people according to their occupations, possibly for administration purposes or more likely to separate the slaves from the rulers, and eventually became a stone-walled prison for those in the worker category. There may have been a point of time when all castes were viewed as equal in India, but that was most likely in the time before the caste-based religions established themselves. Especially when money entered the picture and became the criteria to measure success in this world, the question of who was superior to whom began to emerge. The king who had the most money certified the priest as the most superior caste, since he wrote the scriptures claiming to speak for god. In the scriptures that the priest wrote, he made it known that all must respect the king and serve him, an act for which he was amply rewarded with wealth by the king. The businessman too probably gave great rewards to the priest for stating that it was the will of god that some occupations were more beloved to god than others, but the businessman could not compete with the king in terms of wealth, so he was graded below the king and the priest himself, obviously, since the author of the story always remains on top of the script. Persons with little wealth had nothing to offer the priest in terms of financial rewards, so they came to be slotted as the lowest castes or workers. Those who did not recognize this system of classification were called the outcasts.

In terms of castes, in India, with a population of 1.4 billion, I estimate that about 300-400 million people belong to the upper castes of priest-king-businessman, making up roughly 20% to 30% percent of the population. I estimate another 600-700 million belong to the lowest castes or worker category - essentially the aboriginal tribes and indigenous communities - making up roughly 40% to 50% of the population. The remaining 300-500 million making up the roughly 20% to 40% of the population belong to the outcasts i.e. those who are outside the caste system. They consist primarily of non-caste-based religions such as Muslims, Christian, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, atheists, and mendicants of all kinds - religious, tramps, beggars, etc. 

In terms of classes, I estimate 200-300 million of India's population of 1.4 billion to belong to the upper classes, making up roughly 15% to 20% of the population. I will consider anybody who earns income upward of Rs. 30 lakhs per annum as upper class. I estimate 400-600 million or roughly 30% to 40% of the population as middle class. This is anybody who earns Rs 5. lakhs to Rs 30 lakhs per annum. I estimate the lower class to be about 600-700 million or roughly 40% to 50% of the population. This is anybody who earns less than Rs. 5 lakhs per annum. 

If we look at things from a caste perspective, the upper castes - who make up 20% to 30% of the population - control, dominate and rule over the remaining 70% to 80% of the population. If we look at things from a class perspective, the upper classes - who make up 15% to 20% of the population - control, dominate and rule over the remaining 80% to 85% of the population. This minority of India's people, who make up the upper classes and upper castes control the entire power structure of the nation. Legislature, judiciary, law enforcement, armed forces, media, business, regulatory bodies, etc., are all controlled by these upper classes and castes. I believe that what we see in India is more or less what is happening all over the world, in every single nation. Castes may not be as in the face in other nations as it is in India, but every single nation of the world has its indigenous communities and aboriginal tribes who form a large segment of the population, and every single nation in the world has its minority religions, atheists and mendicants who put together form the outcasts making up another large segment of the population.

The focus of this article is on the classes and castes and their relationship with cannabis. I will deal with the outcasts and their relationship with cannabis in another article. 

The reality of human life is that nobody is superior and nobody is inferior in the overall context. Yes, if one looks through a narrow lens of, say, - ability to read, write and verbalize; or, ability to control vast areas of land, large numbers of people and resources; or, ability to trade goods and services across large quantities; or, ability to use physical strength and skills to create and move things - we will find certain humans to be superior to others from this narrow perspective, because even though all humans are equally the eternal spirit, they are completely different from each other as the manifestation of the spirit in space and time, showing the amazing creative powers of the eternal spirit. From the perspective of the priests, persons who used their hands to create things and physical strength to move and do things were considered inferior because they could not read, write and vocalize like the priests. If one looked at things from the perspective of the workers, where the ability to create things using their hands and physical strength is required, the priests are the inferior class, while the workers are the superior class. Religious books and laws are written by the priests, so in the world of the written and spoken word, the priests are the upper castes. In a similar fashion, if one looked at the world from the king's perspective, the king is the superior caste since he has control over huge amount of wealth, people and resources. If we looked at the world from the businessman's perspective, he is the superior caste since he knows how to monetize resources.  

Castes exist all over the world. For example, the western names of Smith, Carpenter, Butcher, Priest, etc., are essentially the caste or occupation that the person's family traditionally practiced. But in western societies, the caste system is not as vicious as it is in India where a Butcher will be killed if he tried to study and become a Priest. In India, people are born into their castes and remain in their castes throughout their life. This is a rule written by the priest, probably on the insistence of the king and businessman, that all three castes strongly enforce. The main reason for this is that all three castes need to have the workers as the lowest castes to do the work that enables the upper castes to maintain their so-called superiority, primarily through the continued accumulation of wealth. If the worker was not there to do the work, the priest, king and businessman would not be able to amass the wealth. So, we see in many places that a person's caste is not something he can shake off, irrespective of the occupation he pursues. This is a label given by society, even if the individual's occupation today has nothing to do with the caste he was born into. 

The upper classes and upper castes are basically imbeciles who remain in the state of a child's maturity and never grow up to attain the maturity of an adult. They have been taught and conditioned from an early age by older imbeciles that the pursuit of wealth is the way of life, and to have more wealth and possessions is to be superior to other human beings. Other creations of nature - besides humans - never even enter the perspective, other than as means to be used to achieve one's goal of superiority. While a person who reaches maturity learns how to manage all actions needed to survive in this world in the most efficient manner - using the minimum amount of nature's resources and accumulating as little as possible - so as to leave enough for other beings to survive, the upper class and upper caste imbeciles do the opposite. They utilize the maximum amount of nature's resources, and accumulate the maximum possible from nature to survive on this earth, with absolutely no thought or consideration for beings other than themselves. The way of the imbecile upper classes and castes is to have a servant to cook one's food, another servant to clean one's house, a third servant to move one around, a fourth servant to do one's work, and a fifth to clean oneself, while the imbecile goes about procuring more and more things making it even harder for him to manage things on his own, requiring more and more persons to do that work for him is. This is what is called staying in an immature, infant-like state throughout one's life and being dependent on others to perform even one's basic functions. 

The vast majority of the people of the world are low-caste and low class, i.e. they fall in the worker category. They are oppressed and suppressed by the power structure created by the upper castes and classes to remain in this demographic. That is how the upper castes and classes are able to attain and retain power, which they draw from this huge majority of people - masses toiling day and night to ensure that the upper classes and castes stay upper class and upper caste. The upper classes and castes use a combination of means to achieve this. Conquests through wars were the most common ways of recruiting new members of the losing side into the working classes of the winners in the past. When it became increasingly difficult to use this method, given the increasing sophistication of weapons of war that resulted in huge casualties on both sides, the upper classes and castes started using other means. War still is the method of some of today's kings - mainly the political leaders of the world who continue to live with the barbaric mindsets of the past. As the usage of war as a means to recruit persons into the working classes declined as a viable method, the upper class and caste hierarchy of priest-king-businessman started employing the method of religion to recruit new members into the working classes. The priest used religion - with the support of the king and businessman - to conquer the minds of vast numbers of humans and slot them into the working classes to toil for them. Money was used as the carrot to convince a person that the god of the upper classes and castes was superior to the god of the lower classes and castes. If money failed, there was always violence and intimidation. With increasing education and awareness, the use of religion to subjugate the masses started losing its effectiveness. There are still, however, many nations where the priest uses religion to ensure that the majority of the people remain in the working class i.e. the lowest class and caste category. As both war and religion started to lose their effectiveness, in recent times the businessman has stepped in to do the job of recruiting new members into the working classes with the promise of easy money. Today, we find vast numbers of young people being recruited by huge corporations that make them work long hours for small fractions of the money that the businessmen themselves make. The businessmen are, of course, ably supported by the priest and the present-day king - the politician - who do all they can to clear the obstacles in the way of the businessman, in return for large sums of money. The priest and king say that it is one's duty to work and make the nation (read as the upper classes and castes) wealthier and stronger. The king and priest also create sufficient religious laws, policies and economic hardships so that a person is forced to work for the businessman to survive. So, the essential methods of ensuring that there are an ample number of people always to do the work of the upper classes and castes and make the upper classes and castes rich have always been war, religion and business, with each method rising in importance or declining, according to the demands of the situation. George Orwell wrote about this in his book 1984, but this is something that has been going on for possibly thousands of years. The keeping of large numbers of people uneducated; the spread of misinformation; the creation of artificial shortages of food, clothing and shelter; the projection of other societies as enemies; the use of war, disease, and communal discord; seducing society with shiny objects of wealth; stupefying the masses with dangerous chemical drugs, alcohol, etc., are methods constantly employed to fool the vast majority of the people of the world into working for the upper classes and castes.

People move up or down the class hierarchy based on their rising or declining financial fortunes. But a person remains in the caste hierarchy all his life irrespective of where he is in the class hierarchy. John Lennon wrote and sang, in Working Class Hero, 'There's room at the top they are telling you still, but first you must learn how to smile as you kill, if you want to be like the folks on the hill'...A person of low caste or low class will find it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to move up the class hierarchy. A lower caste person moving up the class hierarchy through a rise in fortunes will always be reminded by the existing upper classes and castes that he is a low caste person who does not belong there. The entire structure of society is built in a way so as to ensure that a low class or low caste person remains low class and low caste. Education institutions, public institutions, law enforcement, judiciary, medicine, law making, scientific institutions, media and almost every place of work are designed in such a way that only the upper classes and upper castes can thrive there. A person of a low class or caste will find it extremely difficult to enroll in most educational institutions that are created for the elites. If the person is fortunate enough to gain a good education at the primary levels despite all the hostility and discrimination faced, it will be nearly impossible to gain access to higher education in quality institutions. Some of the typical criteria used to admit a person into a quality institution of higher education are: the caste of the person; the income of the parents; the profession of the parents; the persons of influence that can provide recommendations; the ability to pay the fees; etc. If a person of low caste and low class gets through these near insurmountable barriers, that person will find relentless discrimination from peers and faculty in the educational institutions. The rare person who gets through these challenges and seeks a job will find that the workplace is no different from the educational institution, and the same situations played out there as well. The upper classes and castes ensure that it is only persons from their economic and social strata who rise up through these structures and reach the top. So, typically you will find the children of doctors becoming doctors, the children of judges becoming judges, the children of industry leaders becoming industry leaders, the children of police officers becoming police officers, the children of army officers becoming army officers, the children of politicians becoming politicians, and so on. Skills, qualifications and merit have almost nothing to do with it. It is the upper classes and upper castes holding on to and retaining their control over wealth and society and ensuring that the working classes remain the working classes. Even if a person of the lowest class or caste, reaches the top of these strata against all odds, it will be largely due to the sucking up he or she has done with the elites to get there. Once on top, this person from the lowest class or caste will behave no differently than the other upper classes and castes. He has been transformed into one of them through the process of rising up the strata. 

It is an interesting fact that many of the upper classes and castes in a particular place today were the lower classes and castes in another place earlier. When they could not take the oppression that they faced in their traditional homelands, they migrated in large numbers to other places where they gradually established themselves as the upper classes and castes. In the places that they migrated to, if the natives were evolved, mature societies living peacefully and contented in nature, these natives were subjugated through violence, deceit, religion, inducement of wealth and misinformation to become the lowest classes and castes i.e. the working classes for the new migrants. Migration to societies where the original inhabitants were as immature, discontented, and greedy for wealth and possessions typically meant a battle for superiority in which the new migrants may themselves be forced to join the working classes in the new place or flee back to their homelands or seek other more conducive lands. This is the story of the spread of the upper classes in the world. The oppressed classes and castes from Central Asia migrated to India and established themselves as the upper classes and castes because the original inhabitants of India were a more content, classless, peace-loving society. The oppressed classes and castes of Europe migrated to the Americas and Oceania where they established themselves as the upper classes and castes over the original societies of these places. The same is the story of Africa. One of the methods to establish oneself as an upper class or upper caste person is to go to a place where the skin color of the natives is of a darker shade than one's own, and then to claim that the fairer one's skin color is, the more upper class or upper caste one is. Another trick is to go to a place where one belongs to the religion of the local majority, or to convert to the religion of the local majority, making one automatically upper class or upper caste.  A low class or low caste person in a city is likely to regard himself as an upper class or upper caste person in a rural place. Similarly, a low class or low caste rural person is likely to regard himself as an upper class or upper caste person among the aboriginal tribes and societies that live in the jungles. The fact that these aboriginal persons may be more evolved does not occur to the rural person who moves in, just as the fact that rural people are may be more evolved than the city dweller rarely occurs to a city dweller who moves into a village. Of course, nothing makes one upper class more than money. So even if one is the biggest criminal in the world having committed the worst atrocities imaginable against the largest number of living beings possible, if one has the bank balance then one will be regarded very highly in society. Conversely, one may be the most educated, refined or skilled person, with the highest intelligence levels, but if one has hardly a coin in one's pocket, and one wears worn out shabby clothes, and sports long hair or matted hair, or has dark skin, one is then automatically the lowest class and caste and will get the treatment of discrimination and contempt by the upper classes and castes. This is because the upper classes and upper castes everywhere think that the amount of wealth or possessions that a person has is the measure of human evolution. They fail to understand that nature is more like the natural aboriginal tribal - who lives with less in close friendly relations with nature - than the city dweller with all his synthetic possessions that have been plundered from nature at great costs, and who lives in conflict and disconnected with nature. One of the amusing things we see today is that the sheer greed of the upper classes and castes of some nations makes them even willing to work as the lowest classes and castes in other wealthier nations in the hope of becoming wealthier. Hence, we see upper class and upper caste Indians migrating to Europe and North America where they form the working class and toil unquestioningly for the upper classes and castes there just because their earnings translate into more money when converted to local Indian currency.

The working classes of the world - its lowest classes and lowest castes - lived in nature, and with nature. The upper classes and castes called their ways primitive and savage. The upper classes used their wealth, machines, and guile to take away indigenous ways of life. Those who succumbed to their seductions, they enslaved to do their dirty work for them, work that the upper classes considered impure but essential - like burning and burying their dead and cleaning their excretions. They said that if the indigenous communities worked for them and educated themselves in the ways of the upper classes and castes, they would also be able to become like them. When the indigenous communities did this, they found that these avenues were only open to the upper classes and castes. The upper classes and castes built systems that ensured that the rest would remain enslaved. They made rules that made certain places and privileges inaccessible to the rest. Thet said that if the lower classes and castes drank water from the same sources as the upper classes and castes, the water would become defiled. They said that if the lower classes and castes went to the same places as the upper classes and castes, those places would be defiled. The upper classes and castes said that even if the lower classes and castes looked at them in the eye they would be defiled.

In reality, I am a worker when I clean my house, cook my meals and tend to my garden, I am a businessman plying my trade when I think, research and write, I am a king and lawmaker when I direct others to do things for me and enjoy the fruits of my labour, I am a priest when I quietly contemplate the reality of the eternal spirit. I am generally a worker in the mornings, a businessman during the day, a king in the evenings and a priest after dark. When I have money, I am upper class, and when I do not, I am lower class. That is the nature of things. All humans are workers, businessmen, kings and priests at different points of time and in different contexts. Socrates was a stone-cutter - low-class, low caste - and also, arguably the greatest philosopher in the world - high class, high caste. That was probably why the upper classes and castes of Greece made him drink hemlock. Siva, the great god, has no money and according to the caste system fits among the outcasts as a mendicant. Siva, as the eternal spirit, creates form from the void and destroys form to dissolve it back into the void. From the vast number of beings created through nature came humans. Humans created religions, and from their religions they created their castes, and from their activities they created classes. When the caste-based religions came to India, Siva was already the god of the classless, casteless indigenous communities and aboriginal tribes in India for thousands of years. By slotting the indigenous communities and aboriginal tribes into the lowest classes and castes of society, the caste-based religions solved the problem of where the original inhabitants of the land fit into their new societies. But the problem of where to slot Siva remained. He could not be slotted into the lowest castes as he was a god and that would not be acceptable to the original inhabitants. So, Siva is considered outside the caste-based system, or technically an outcast according to its categorization. In her book, Banaras, City of Light, Daniela L. Eck, writes - 'In a historical sense, Shiva is an outsider to the Indo-Aryan pantheon. While Rudra-Shiva claims several hymns of the Rig Veda and receives attention in the Atharva Veda and Shatapatha Brahmana, it is nonetheless clear that this god emerged from the shadows of non-Aryan India to a position of increasing prominence in the Hindu pantheon. A well-known seal from the ancient Indus Valley civilization, which flourished in the early second millenium B.C., shows a three-headed figure with an erect phallus, seated in a yogic posture, surrounded with animals in the style of Shiva as Pashupati, the 'Lord of Beasts.' One cannot say that this figure is Shiva, but it has many of the characteristics that came to be Shiva's.' She further writes, - 'Shiva cannot be categorised in any way - not by varna, or ashrama. He cannot be known by his clan or lineage. 'He' cannot even be known by sex, since Shiva is half Shakti, his female energy. He is a bafflement to conventions, including religious conventions. It is not surprising, therefore, that his followers were sometimes called veda-bahyas, those who are 'outside the Vedas.''

The problem arises when I want to be king all the time, or when I want to be priest all the time, or I want to be businessman all the time. Strange as it may seem to you, there are people who want to be workers all the time. They dread not having any work to do. When I go to great extents, employ dishonesty and inflict suffering on others to cling to my position as king, priest, businessman or worker forever, that is when the problem manifests itself. An even greater problem arises when I do not want anybody from the lowest classes or castes to move out of their zones designated by me, and I do every means possible - fair or foul - to keep that person from moving out of his class or caste. That is the viciousness of the caste system as practiced in India, where the upper castes will easily kill a person from the lowest castes if he or she is seen doing something that is not laid down by the upper castes and classes as the proper behavior. Possibly millions of lower castes have lost their lives at the hands of the upper castes like this. In order to permanently cling to my position, rather than adapt to the situation, many people accumulate vast wealth and possesions beyond their needs. With this, they impose themselves on others. They fail to recognize that every human is the eternal spirit capable of being all things. In a situation where there is somebody else who is better able to perform the function of king or priest or businessman or worker than they themselves can, they refuse to concede to the greater abilities of this other person. Instead, they try to find faults in the other person to show themselves as superior, and the other as inferior. The faults can be anything - the way the other dresses, the language that the other speaks, the food that the other consumes, the intoxicants that the other uses or does not use, the color of the other's skin, the belief system of the other, and so on and so forth. This refusal to concede to the better abilities of another person who is more suitable for the context is among the root causes of suffering across the world and among all living beings. This is the immaturity and the imbecility of the upper classes and castes that has created such suffering and destruction across not just humans, but also to all the other living beings that share the planet with humans.

Cannabis and its relationship with classes and castes

Now let us look at cannabis and its relationship with the class and caste systems.

Until the 19th century, even though all classes and castes in India used cannabis as bhang, charas, ganja or the confectionary majum, the cultivation and consumption of cannabis - the herb of Siva - came to be labelled as low class and low caste. This is despite the knowledge that cannabis was one of the most important crops in India, enabling a poor small-scale farmer to earn much needed income, and earning states like the Bengal Presidency more than 20% of state revenue in the year 1882. This was despite cannabis being one of the most important medicines in the Indian medicine cabinet. This was despite cannabis being considered the most potent entheogen, widely used by religious mendicants of all religions and the high priests of the most prominent temples in India.

The working and labouring classes that cultivated and consumed cannabis

Let us look at the cultivation part and why it came to be regarded as low caste and low class. Cannabis was cultivated in India by the indigenous communities and aborginal tribes long before the caste based religions established themselves here. When the caste based system reduced these original inhabitants of India into the lowest classes and castes, cannabis cultivation also became a low class low caste occupation. The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission of 1894-95 says in its report that '174. Duthie and Fuller write that hemp growing is restricted to the lowest classes of cultivators, being considered beneath the dignity of the higher castes. So much is this the case that the phrase "May hemp be sown in thy house" is one of the commonest of abusive imprecations. Mr. Dharma Nand and other witnesses corroborate this account. The principal cultivators appear to be the Khasias or Tabhilas, a class of people above the Domes and below Rajputs in the social scale, who do not wear the sacred thread. If a Brahman or Rajput wishes to cultivate hemp, he engages a Khasia or Dome to work for him; but, after the crop is taken off, he has no prejudice against making charas or separating the fibres from the stalks. Dr. Prain (page 48) has traced the contempt in which the hemp cultivator is held to the original motive of the cultivation, viz., the production of fibre, and points out that the cultivators of other fibres, such as sann (Crotalaria), are similarly regarded. Mr. Cockburn (34) confirms this explanation, suggesting that the offensiveness of the operation of rotting the stalks is the origin of the dislike. Unfortunately Mr. Dharma Nand from direct knowledge contradicts this, which might have been a reasonable solution of the question; for he says that the higher classes have no objection to this operation. The origin of the prejudice is probably to be sought in very early social institutions.' Another reason for the contempt towards the cannabis cultivator may have been because a large number of poor Muslims - considered low class and low caste even today in India - cultivated cannabis. Many of the poor Muslims who cultivated cannabis may well have belonged to these aboriginal tribes and indigenous communities before they converted to Islam. To discriminate against the Muslims and indigenous communities and to show themselves as superior, the upper castes called cannabis 'bhang' when they cultivated it, and 'ganja' when the Muslims, aboriginal tribes or indigenous communities cultivated it. The Hemp Commission says that '205. Hindus appear to be the chief growers of bhang, while the majority of ordinary cultivators are Muhammadans. Mr. Giles writes that "the actual sowing of the seed, the ploughing, weeding, and bird scaring, etc., is always carried out by Bania or Hindu cultivators, the Muhammadan cultivator supplying the bullocks which work the well and the zamindar giving the land. The Bania supplies the seed, but the manure is given in the same proportion as the produce is divided, i.e., one-fifth to the Bania and two-fifths each to the raiyat and the landholder. The landholder also gives takavi or advance in cash to the raiyat." This seems to describe a partnership of a kind which probably exists in the cultivation of other produce in the same country; but there is other evidence to show that the Hindus preponderate in growing this particular crop. The habit or custom is not, however, sufficiently well marked to be regarded as a special feature of the industry.' Babu Jogendra Nath Mozumdar, Brahmin, Deputy Inspector of Excise, Darjeeling, says, 'Muhammadans are said to be mostly engaged in ganja cultivation, but the business is not confined to them...' Babu Digendra Nath Pal, Kayasth, Deputy Inspector of Excise, 24-Parganas, says, 'The ganja cultivators are of the same class as other agricultural people..Ganja is prepared by the ordinary cultivators, both Hindus and Muhammadans...'  Babu Sir Chunder Soor, Satgope, 1st Assistant Supervisor of Ganja Cultivation, Naogaon, Rajshahi, says, 'The preparations of the hemp drug (ganja) is made by the low class Hindus, such as Kaibartas, Malakars, Napits, Charal, Koch, Jugi, etc., and by the Muhammadans. The proportion of Hindus is 15 per cent., Muhammadans 85 per cent.'  Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, 'The use of ganja is more excessive near the jungle districts and in the foot hills of the Eastern Ghâts...Many Muhammadans are reported as using it, so that it has passed into a proverb. When a man desires something another does not wish to give, he is reproved by the proverb, "Why, you are like a Muhammadan after ganja. "...The Muhammadans I surmise to be more familiar with it than other classes of the people, because the drug as used seems to have been introduced from north India, possibly being carried down in the Muhammadan invasion. There is historical evidence that the drug was used commonly in the Muhammadan armies...' Cannabis was already being used much before the Muslim invasions starting from the 13th century, unlike the theory of this witness. K. Vematasoobiah, Veishya, Trader and Pleader, District Munsiff's Court, Cuddapah, says, 'In this district Musalmans smoke ganja... Their habits are dilatory.' Surgeon-Lieutenant-Colonel E. Bovill, Officiating Civil Surgeon of Patna and Superintendent, Lunatic Asylum, says, 'It has been stated to me that Muhammadans use charas more than Hindus, the latter objecting to it because it is collected on hides.'

In terms of usage, the extent of the use of cannabis as ganja or charas by the working and labouring classes can be gauged by the large number and diversity of classes cited in the Hemp Commission's report. It its summary, the Commission says, 'Classes who use the drugs as stimulants: 488...Ganja or charas is chiefly used by...the lower classes of both Hindus and Muhammadans, such as artizans and cultivators, fishermen and boatmen, palki-bearers and day labourers, sepoys and night watchmen, wrestlers and athletes, Chamars and Domes, and others of the lower orders; domestic servants of all kinds, especially those who, as syces, durwans, or dhobis, have especially trying work to do; aborigines of different races, such as Sonthals, Gonds, and many more;  tradesmen, Kayasths, and others of the lower middle classes. These are among the classes specially mentioned by witnesses as smoking hemp drugs.' These classes listed by the Hemp Commission is in addition to those listed in point 470 of its summary, i.e. - gymnasts, musicians, porters, divers, postal runners, singhara cultivators working in tanks, night watchmen...

Besides the different occupation types listed in the summary of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission report of 1894-95, we see from individual witness statements the entire range of working and labouring classes that smoked ganja, in response to questions 10, 17, 20, 24, 27 posed by the Hemp Commission regarding the classes that consumed cannabis, and the reasons for it.. This was not restricted to any specific geography, but was prevalent across the length and breadth of the country, showing the extensive and long-standing nature of cannabis usage, specifically the smoking of ganja, by the working and labouring classes a.k.a. the lowest classes and castes. One can see from the language used by witnesses - who were all from the upper clases and castes - to describe the working and labouring classes, the contempt with which they held these classes, and their own sense of superiority over these classes. Mr. J. C. Price, Magistrate and Collector, Rajshahi, says, 'As a rule only the poorer classes smoke ganja: they ..the poorer agriculturists who work in the fields exposed to the sun or in damp and wet, daylabourers, palki-bearers, and a few prostitutes. ..Nearly all, if not all, ganja consumers come from the lower orders: agricultural labourers, day-labourers, palki-bearers, domestic servants, such as syces, mahauts, and people accustomed to hard work.' Mr. F. H. Barrow, Magistrate and Collector of Bankura, says, 'The smokers are generally people of moderate circumstances.' Mr. A. C. Tute, Magistrate and Collector of Dinajpur, says, 'Lower classes generally smoke ganja. Charas is rarely used...day-labourers, and up-country palki bearers generally use ganja. ..This class consists of very low class of people, viz., fishermen, Hanoi domes...Beggars and very poor men.' Mr. C. R. Marindin, Magistrate and Collector of Shahabad, says, 'Ganja is very generally consumed by the Kol tribes locally known as Karwars on the Rhotas plateau..' Mr. N. K. Bose, Officiating Magistrate and Collector of Noakhali, says, 'ganja is smoked by ...jalias (fishermen),.. dhobis (washermen), ...palki-bearers, (5) idlers and bad characters..' Mr. J. H. Bernard, Offg. Magistrate and Collector, says, 'Generally speaking the labouring class smoke ganja and charas...Generally from the lower class who work in the field or as coolies, bearers, and cart-drivers.' Mr. A. E. Harward, Offg. Magistrate and Collector, says, 'The use of ganja is not confined to any particular class, but it is more common among the lower classes than among the upper. It is also more used by labourers, artisans, and menial servants than by the cultivating classes.' Colonel C. H. Garbett, Deputy Commissioner of Hazaribagh, says, 'Ganja consumers consist of the well-to-do petty land holders or cultivators, all of whom have extensive cultivations.' Rai Nandakisore Das, Bahadur, District Officer of Angul, Cuttack, says, 'Labouring classes are occasional moderate consumers.' Mr. W. Maxwell, Sub-Divisional Officer, Jhenidah, District Jessore, says, 'Syces, coolies, boatmen, ticcagariwalas...are the classes who use ganja most.' Babu Ram Charan Bose, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Alipur, 24-Parganas, says, 'ganja by manjis, boatmen and fishermen, cartmen, syces, grass-cutters, whose avocations of life lead to constant exposure to sun and water...Amongst those who work, common coolies and labourers betake partially to ganja.' Babu Gopal Chunder Mookerjee, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Diamond Harbour, says, 'Low classes, labouring classes, coolies, palkibearers, boatmen, mendicants; without restriction of localities..' Babu Navin Krishna Banerji, Brahman, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Purulia, District Manbhum, says, 'hard-working menial class smoke ganja...' Babu Pran Kumar Das, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector and Personal Assistant to the Commissioner of Burdwan, says, 'Ganja is taken generally by the lower classes—cultivators, domestic servants, boatmen, fishermen, and other labourers...Domestic servants, such as cooks, bearers, waiters, darwans, syces and coachmen, boatmen, fishermen, cultivators, ordinary daylabourers, coal-miners, etc.' Babu Gobind Chandra Basak, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Brahmanbaria, Tippera District, says, 'The lower classes of Hindus and Muhammadans smoke ganja ..The ganja consumers are the working and labouring classes of Muhammadans and Hindus. The Chamars and mehtars among the Hindus. The occasional consumers of ganja are the Sahas, Pals, and low-class Kayasth, who smoke on religious and social festivities, such as Trinath Mela and marriages and pujas.' Babu Dina Nath De, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Nadia, says, 'Generally the lower and working class use ganja...' Babu Ganendra Nath Pal, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Naogaon, says, 'Ganja is smoked generally by people of the lowest class, such as Bagdi, Dulia, Behara, domes. tic servants, groom, Behari darwan, Dosad, Chamar, Malla, Kairi, Domes, Nunia of Behar...cooks and palkibearers form the class of habitual moderate consumers; and among these the mendicant class are habitual excessive consumers. The occasional moderate consumers are taken from the lowest classes of both Hindu and Musalman, such as Dosad, Nunia, Chamar, Malla, Dhangar, Bunwa, Dulia, Dome, Bagdi, Keora, Mether, Bhumali. The occasional excessive consumers among these classes are those who otherwise turned vagabond.' Babu Ganganath Roy, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Chittagong, says, 'Ganja is smoked by fishermen, Haris, Kahars, bearers, coolies, mehtars, religious medicants, and also other Hindus and Muhammadans as well as Christians and Buddhists..' Babu Bhairab Nath Palit, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Birbhum, says, 'The consumers of ganja are chiefly daylabourers and agriculturists and religious mendicants, the latter being also drinkers of bhang.' Babu Jogendro Nath Bandyopadhya, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Jalpaiguri, says, 'The agricultural people are the general consumers of ganja.' Babu Jaga Mohan Bhattacharjya, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector and Personal Assistant to Commissioner, Chittagong, says, 'The working classes, the cultivating classes, boatmen, and fishermen....In Dacca the weaver class, which is a wealthy one, generally smoke ganja.' Babu Manmohan Chakravarti, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Jajpur, Cuttack, Orissa, says, 'Ganja is smoked...occasionally by goalas (cowkeepers) and bearers, manjhis (boatmen and fishermen), and chasas (agricultural class).' Maulavi Abdus Samad, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Purulia, Manbhum, says, 'Ganja is smoked generally by the daylabourers, cartmen, porters, masons, palki-bearers,...up-country darwans or porters, Rajputs acting as athletes'. Babu Gungadhar Ghose, Excise Deputy Collector, 24-Parganas, says, 'Ganja is smoked generally by people of the lower castes who have much outdoor work, such as boatmen, fishermen, and coolies...These are mainly taken from the lower castes who have a good deal of rough out-door work, such as Bagdi, Podh, Behara, Chamar, Malla, Dhangar, Dulia, Dome, Mehtar, Boistab Sanyasi, songster, Kaibarta, etc. They are generally moderate consumers.' Babu Surendranath Mozoomdar, Brahmin, Special Excise Deputy Collector, Monghyr, says, 'Classes — Rajputa Bahbans, Agarwla, banias, fakirs or sadhus, and labouring classes, e.g., Kahars, Nuniyas, Dhanuk, etc...Brahmin agricultural class who cultivate fields by manual labour.' Babu Kanti Bhushan Sen, Baidya, Special Excise Deputy Collector of Cuttack, says, 'As a rule, the lower classes smoke more ganja than the higher all over the Cuttack district and the Gurjats. The classes of fishermen and boatmen are mostly ganja-smokers.' Babu Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, on deputation as 2nd Inspector of Excise,, says, 'Bengal..Ganja.— Classes. — (a) Habitual moderate.—Fishermen, cultivators, coolies|and day-labourers, singers (jatrawalas), boatmen, mehters, domes, prostitutes, artizans, blacksmiths cooks, etc.' Babu Gobind Chandra Das, Baidya, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Malda, says, 'It is the daylabourers, artisans, cultivators, boatmen and such like that consume the greatest amount of ganja. The boatman of East Bengal are conspicuous for ganja smoking and have been referred to elsewhere...It is only the lower classes that are mainly addicted to it. In general two broad divisions may be made amongst the ganja smokers—(1) labourers, cultivators, boatmen, and, in fact, such as have to earn their bread by constant manual labour; ...The first class are moderate consumers. They smoke ganja after doing their legitimate work, say, once in the morning, once in the evening, and sometimes once at midday. Amongst these may be mentioned the boatmen of East Bengal and the Raj Bangsis and Koches of the Barindra. The boatmen of East Bengal believe that ganja enables them to withstand the inclemencies of the weather...' Babu Braja Durlabh Hazara, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Howrah, says, 'These are the tariwallas, carriage and cart drivers, coolies and durwans, and Bengali cooks.' Bnau Nobin Chandra Kar, Excise Deputy Collector, Bhagalpur, says, 'From the poor labouring classes who have to undergo hard manual labour and who are given up to habits of wandering.' Babu Suresh Chundra Bal, Baidya, Special Excise Deputy Collector, Howrah. says, 'Ganja is ...also used by labourers, such as palki-bearers, boatmen, carters, coolies, etc...The habitual moderate consumers are chiefly the manual labourers and the agriculturists. These are chiefly poor people who sometimes enjoy the drugs as a luxury, such as coolies on their journey who get a good supply at times by the coolie recruiters.' Babu Roy Brahma Dutt, Kayasth, Excise Deputy Collector, Darbhanga, says, 'Rajputs, Brahmins...men afflicted with diseases, and also men of the lower order.' Babu Banku Behari Dutt, Excise Deputy Collector, Backergunge, says, 'Ganja is smoked generally by boatmen and labourers in this district, sometimes also by gentlemen class.' Babu Wooma Charan Bose, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector; Manager, Raj Banaili, District Bhagalpur, says, 'Brahmins, Babhans, Rajputs...and the agricultural class of Hindus and some Musalmans drink bhang. ...Brahmins, Rajputs, Babhans, agricultural classes, who abstain from drinking alcohol or to whom alcohol is prohibited by religious and social rules, are moderate consumers.' Babu Rasik Lal Ghose, Court of Wards' Manager, Dinajpur, says, 'Ganja is smoked by the low classes of people such as fishermen, mehtars, haris, up-country coolies, and by men of debasing immoral character, but very rarely by the cultivators or other classes of people...' Mr. W. Sarson, retired Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, formerly Abkari Superintendent, Chittagong, says, 'All classes of the people smoke ganja, especially the lower order of them, such as coolies, chamars and fishermen.' Mr. W. M. Smith, Retired Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Sonthal Parganas, says, 'Poor people are said to smoke ganja.'  Babu Kali Das Mukerji, Sub-Deputy Collector and Superintendent of Distillery, Serampore, Hughli, says, 'Ganja is consumed by all classes of the natives of the soil, though the greater number may be found in the labouring classes...Bhang is ...occasionally by the labourers'. Babu Jogendra Nath Mozumdar, Brahmin, Deputy Inspector of Excise, Darjeeling, says, 'But ganja is used in every district in Bengal; ganja is pre-eminently the thing of the poor and is mostly in use amongst...lower class labourers, mehtars, dhobis...' Hon'ble F. R. S. Collier, Magistrate and Collector, 24-Parganas, says 'Ganja is smoked generally by people of the lower castes, who have much outdoor work, such as boatmen, fishermen, and coolies...These are mainly taken from the lower castes who have a good deal of rough outdoor work, such as Bagdi, Podh, Behara, Chamar, Mallah, Dhangar, Dulia, Dome, Mether, Boistab, Sanyasi, Koibarta, etc. They are generally moderate consumers.'  Babu Sir Chunder Soor, Satgope, 1st Assistant Supervisor of Ganja Cultivation, Naogaon, Rajshahi, says, 'The lowest classes of Hindus and Muhammadans, such as fishermen, Kaoras, Methers, Domes, Muchis, Chamars, Mallas, palki-bearers, etc., smoke ganja. It is also smoked by udasins,..songsters,...The habitual moderate consumers are generally of the class of people called udasins, syces, fishermen, artizans, chamars, etc. Their number is the largest...The occasional moderate smokers are taken from the lowest classes of people, such as Dome, Bagdi, Kaora, Dhangar, Nunia, etc.' Mr. F. H. Tucker, District Superintendent of Police, Dinajpur, says, 'In Lower Bengal, especially in flooded districts, the lower classes of people, such as fishermen and boatmen, and who are constantly exposed to rain and water, take to ganja.' Mr. R. L. Ward, District Superintendent of Police, Rajshahi, says, 'Ganja is generally smoked by the lower classes of people of Eastern Bengal—that is, that part of Bengal which is for the greater part of the year under water and damp...(b) Fishermen. (c) Boatmen. (d) The labouring classes, earth-cutters. (e) Muhammadan. (f) Chandal, cultivators...' Babu Mathura Mohan Sirkar, Inspector of Police, Jhenida, District Jessore, says, '[S]ome of the lower class of people who commit offences at nights, and those who follow the profession of singing in all localities, are found to smoke them...and other classes of men, who are almost homeless and have no friends, generally smoke ganja or drink bhang.' Mr. W. R. Ricketts, Manager, Nilgiri State, Tributary Mahals, Orissa, says, 'Labourers, such as stone-cutters, masons, etc.' Mahamahopadhya Mahesha Chandra Nyayaratna, C. I. E., Brahmin, Principal, Government Sanskrit College, Calcutta, says, 'Hackney carriage and cart drivers, mechanics, day labourers, and Brahmin cooks engaged by the day are often found to have contracted the habit of smoking ganja. Some Uriyas smoke ganja with tobacco and other leaves.' Babu Jadub Chandra Chuckerbutty, Brahmin, Civil and Sessions Judge, Kuch Behar, says, 'It is generally used by the agricultural and labouring classes.' Banu Girinda Mohan Chuckerbutty, Brahmin, Munsiff, Comilla (Tippera), says, 'Poor labouring classes, especially the Banias (aborigines settled in the Lower Provinces).' Babu Sreenath Chatterjee, Brahmin, Cashier, Public Works Department, Darjeeling Division, says, 'Specially in the Tarai the agricultural class, such as Rajbangshis, smoke ganja, but charas is rarely used in the district.' Babu Pratapchandra Ghosha, Registrar of Calcutta, says, 'Ganja.—All...bearers, coolies, peshrajes, boatmen, and such other persons as have arduous labour to go through...cultivators in Bengal are not free from this drug-smoking. Illiterate up-countrymen, darwans, shop-keepers, and gomashtas are not free from this narcotic...' Surgeon-Lietenant-Colonel A. Crombie, M.D., SurgeonSuperintendent, General Hospital, Calcutta, says, 'Ganja is smoked to a large extent by the boatmen, but also by the agricultural classes generally.'   Assistant Surgeon Rai Taraprosanna Bahadur, Baidya, Chemical Examiner to the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, says, 'A small proportion of the lower classes smoke ganja and charas...The consumption of these drugs is chiefly confined to the lower classes of people.' Rai Bahadur Kanny Loll Dey, C.I.E., late Chemical Examiner to the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, says, 'Labourers, nightwatchmen,...and other people following occupations involving hard manual labour or exposure to the influences of the weather are given to ganja-smoking...' Assistant Surgeon Bosonto Kumar Sen, in Civil Medical Charge, Bogra, says, 'Ganja is used for smoking, chiefly by the lower class of people.' Assistant Surgeon Norendra Nath Gupta, Baidya, in Civil Medical charge, Rangpur, says, 'Generally low classes of people smoke ganja here, such as palki-bearers, coolies, dhobies, Bedias, fishermen, up country cooks and servants, etc.' Assistant Surgeon Chooney Lall Dass, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence and Therapeutics, Medical School, Dacca, says 'fishermen, day-labourers...' Assistant Surgeon Devendranath Roy, Brahmin, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence, Campbell Medical School, Calcutta, says, 'As far as my information goes, the lower classes of people of the North-Western Provinces, Behar, and the Eastern Districts of Bengal smoke ganja in large number... Subject to the above remarks, the kahars, dosads, kurmis, Muhammadans, and palki-bearers of Bengal, with exceptions here and there, are habitual moderate consumers.' Assistant Surgeon Behari Lal Pal, Sadgop, Krishnagar, Nadia, says, '...boatmen, and fishermen.' Assistant Surgeon Hari Mohan Sen, Baidya, Chittagong, says, 'but it is the labouring classes who are most addicted to it.' Babu Durga Dass Lahiri, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Rangpur, says, 'Generally low classes of people smoke the ganja here, viz., palki-bearers, coolies, fishermen, etc.' Pyari Sankar Dass Gupta, Baidya, Medical Practitioner, Secretary, Bogra Medical Society, Bogra, says, 'Lower-class Hindus and Muhammadans use ganja for smoking.' Kailas Chundra Bose, Kayasth, Medical Practitioner, Calcutta, says, 'Ganja is smoked by the Hindus and Muhammadans...' Prasad Das Mallik, Subarnabanik, Medical Practitioner, Hughli, says 'The lower classes and a very small number of the middle class are addicted to the smoking of ganja and charas. Fishermen, boatmen, artizans, syces, bearers (not Urayas)...are the people who are found generally to smoke ganja...Bhang is drunk chiefly by up-country men, darwans, sepoys, constables, etc...' Nimai Charan Das, Vaidya, Medical Practitioner, Chittagong, says, 'The labouring classes, such as fishermen, shoemakers, up-country servants, and most of the prostitutes smoke ganja in this district...' Bassunto Kumar Roy, Zamindar and Medical Practitioner, 24-Parganas, says, 'The lowest classes generally and a small minority of higher class people use ganja.' Annada Prasanna Ghatak, M.B., Private Medical Practitioner, Arrah, says, 'Ganja is smoked by the labouring classes...' Bijoya Ratna Sen, Kaviranjan, Kabiraj, Calcutta, says, 'Lower classes, such as fishermen, cultivators and day labourers (4 to 1).' Ram Chander Goopta, Kabiraj, Barisal, Backergunge District, says, ' In this district the low class people, such as boatmen, itinerant singers, and labourers, generally smoke ganja....All the above four classes of consumers generally come from the low classes of the people.' Raja Peary Mohun Mukerji, C.S.I., Zamindar, Uttarpara, Hughli, says 'Palki bearers, diggers of earth, night watchmen, fishermen...are more given to smoking ganja than people in other occupations of life.' Maharaja Girijanath Roy Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'Ganja is generally used by the lower and labouring classes..., but seldom by men of higher classes, except Brahmin confectioners and professional musicians.' Raja Mahima Ranjan Roy Chowdhry, Zamindar, Kakina, Rangpur, says, 'Generally...people belonging to the singing classes smoke ganja and charas.' Rai Radha Govinda Rai, Sahib Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'Poorer classes generally smoke ganja; charas is rarely used. Most of the...low-class people, such as day labourers, menials, and up-country palki-bearers, generally use it.' Rai Bahadur Radha Ballav Chowdhuri, Baidya, Honorary Magistrate and Zamindar, Sherpur Town, Mymensingh District, says, 'Generally the working and labouring classes of the community smoke ganja.' Fazl Runbbee, Dewan to His Highness the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, Murshidabad, says, 'Ganja is to some extent used by the labouring classes of the people, such as boatmen, fishermen, bearers, etc., in moderation.' Babu Surendra Nath Pal Chowdhury, Zamindar, Ranaghat, District Nadia, says, 'The industrial classes (mostly up-country men) smoke ganja with very few exceptions, while the consumers of charas are mostly Muhammadans in up-country, not without a sprinkling of Hindus...The number of "habitual moderate consumers" far exceeds that of "habitual excessive consumers."' Babu Radhika Churn Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar, Berhampur, says, 'Generally low classes of people smoke ganja.' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'Among other classes which use ganja may be mentioned agricultural and daylabourers, palki-bearers, fishermen, boatmen, and dhobies...Bhang is also largely used by native Hindu sepoys...' Babu Nundo Lal Gossain, Brahmin, Zamindar, Serampore, says, 'The cultivators of Rajshahi and Jessore are mostly Muhammadans...Cultivators, fishermen, night watchmen, ascetics, musicians,...' Gossain Mohendra Gir, Sanyasi, Zamindar, English Bazar, Malda, says, 'Mostly the lower classes of people smoke ganja. Members of the upper classes smoke it but rarely...' Babu Kalikisto Sarkar, Kayasth, Talukdar, Kasundi, Jessore, says, 'In the district of Jessore generally, people of the lower class, such as palki-bearers, domes, bagdis and buna-coolies smoke ganja...' M. Kazi Rayaz-Ud-Din Mahamed, Zamindar, Commilla, Tippera, says, 'The ganja consumers are the working and labouring classes of Moslems and Hindus...The habitual consumers are those who take hard bodily labour and pursue detestable and noxious callings, such as Chamars and Mehters, among Hindus.' Syad Abdul Jabbar, Zamindar, Commilla, Tippera, says 'A large number of lower uneducated people use ganja...The labourers of the lower class and menial servants give themselves up to the habit of ganja, charas, and bhang using.' Babu Jogendra Kishore Rai Chaudhuri, Zamindar, Ramgopalpur, District Mymensingh, says, 'The lower class of people smoke ganja...' Babu Sasi Bhusan Roy, Manager, Dubalhati Raj Estate, Rajshahi District, says, 'Ganja is generally smoked by people of lower class...I believe the habitual moderate consumers mostly belong to the labouring class, and the habitual excessive smokers come from...musicians and debauchees..' Babu Sashi Bhushan Roy, Chairman, Satkhira Municipality, District Khulna, says, 'Coolies and palki-bearers use ganja, some in moderation, and some in excess.' Babu Aghore Nath Banerji, Vice-Chairman, Serampore Municipality, District Hughli, says, 'Lower class people above 30 years of age smoke ganja generally.' Revd. W. B. Phillips, Missionary, London Missionary Society, Calcutta, says, 'Fishermen, washermen, coolies, cultivators, carpenters, artificers generally, devotees, and some of the middle and higher classes.' Revd. G. C. Dutt, Missionary, Khulna, says, 'Lower class people, such as agriculturists, coolies, bearers, banias, fishermen, etc.,...smoke ganja.' Babu Mahendra Chandra Mitra, Kayasth, Pleader, Honorary Magistrate, and Municipal Chairman, Naihati, 24-Parganas, says, 'These people who are exposed to inclemencies of weather, such as boatmen, carriers of loads, palki-bearers, fishermen, night-watchmen, men who spend their lives in manual work...' Babu Madhava Chandra Chatterjee, Brahmin, Pleader, District Court, Dinajpurun, says, 'Habitual excessive consumers of ganja belong to the lower classes of society...' Babu Parameshwar Dan, Kshetrya, Pleader, Judge's Court, Vice- Chairman, District Board, Dinajpur, says, 'Low class people smoke ganja and charas. Few people in the mufassal smoke, but the number is large in towns. In the town of Dinajpur there are many ganja-smokers...' Pundit Rakhal Chunder Tewary, Brahmin, Pleader and Honorary Magistrate, Diamond Harbour, 24-Parganas, says, 'Low, agricultural, labouring classes, boatmen, palankeen-bearers, jogis, fakirs, small numbers among gentries, and women among prostitutes and lower class...' Babu Sasadhar Roy, Brahmin, Pleader and Honorary Magistrate, Rajshahi, says, 'I should note that palkibearers, cooks, (up-country) and Uriya domestic servants, some low class prostitutes who cannot pay for wine,...artisans or handicraftsmen are consumers, more or less, of ganja and bhang...' Babu Jadunath Kanjilal, Brahmin, Pleader, Judge's Court, Hughli, says, 'It is the lower class of the people who smoke ganja and charas; the higher class seldom do so...Professional singers and musicians do also smoke ganja.' Babu Beprodas Banerjee, Brahman, Pleader, Newspaper Editor, and Chairman, Baraset Municipality, says, 'Mehters, carriage drivers, khansamas, tailors, itinerant musicians, men connected with mosques and temples are ganja smokers...Sepoys are specially fond of it [bhang] and daily use it.' Babu Nobo Gopal Bose Rai Chowdhoory, Kayasth, Talukdar and Judge's Court Pleader (late Munsiff of Nator), Memari, Burdwan District, says, 'those who come from Behar and the North-West for menial service here, such as, door-keeper, pankha-puller, water-bearer, etc.' Babu Anango Mohan Naha, Kayasth, Judge's Court Pleader, Comilla, Tippera District, says, 'In my district ganja is generally used by the lower classes of people, and that in places where there are bazars with a neighbourhood of low class men.' Babu Kailas Chandra Dutta, Baidya, Vakil, Judge's Court, Comilla, Tippera District, says, 'It is generally confined to the lower orders of the labouring class and sanyasis. Boatmen, fishermen, singers, namasudras, gipsies, and others use it...' Babu Mohini Mohan Burdhan, Kayasth, District Government Pleader of Tippera, says, 'Generally the lower classes of people take to the habit of smoking ganja...It will not, in my opinion, be very wide of the truth to say that almost the major portion of the rural population of this district, forming especially the lower strata of society, is addicted more or less to the habit of smoking ganja.' Babu Tara Nath Chuckerbutty, Brahmin, Government Pleader, Faridpur, says, 'Generally low class people use ganja.' Babu Amvika Charan Mazumdar, Vaidya, Pleader and Zamindar, Faridpur, says, 'Low caste people, such as Chandals, fishermen, washermen, Chamars, Dhangers, and barbers largely smoke ganja...' Babu Bhuvan Mohun Sanyal, Brahmin, Government Pleader, Purnea, says, 'In this district ganja is largely used by the lower classes of the people, such as coolies, beldars, palki-bearers, guries (fishermen), and the like...Habitual moderate consumers are principally taken from the labouring classes, such as coolies, beldars, etc.' Babu Amritalal Raha, Kayasth, Pleader, Judge's Court and Talukdar, Khulna, says, 'agricultural cultivators- By low class people...Low class people smoke ganja. It is rarely used by high class people...' Rai Bahadur Raj Kumar Sarvadhikari, Secretary, British Indian Association, Calcutta, says, 'Palki-bearers, diggers of earth, night watchmen, fishermen...' Umagati Rai, Brahmin, Pleader, and Secretary to the Jalpaiguri Branch, Indian Association, says, 'Ganja, though used by almost all classes of people, is largely and ordinarily used by the lower labouring class of people...' Babu Akshay Kumar Maitra, Secretary, Rajshahi Association, Pleader, Judge's Court, Member, Rajshahi District Board, Commissioner, Rampur Boalia Municipality, says, 'Ganja and charas are disreputable drugs and are seldom used by the higher classes of society. The bearers and boatmen of Behar and North-West Provinces, the chamars, domes, muchis, mehters, dosads, bagdis, sanyasis and bairagis are the chief votaries of ganja...' Babu Kamala Kanta Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar and Pleader, President of the Chittagong Association, says, 'Ganja is smoked by Dome (fisherman), Hari (sweeper)...' Babu Nitya Nanda Roy, Teli, Merchant and Zamindar, Chittagong, says, 'Mostly fishermen and low classes of people smoke ganja...' District Board, Monghyr (Sub-Committee), says, 'For ganja— (1) Rajputs, Brahmins, Babhans, i.e., agricultural classes. (2) Banias, Agarwalls, and Chhattris, i.e., trading classes. (3) Kahars, Dhanuks, and other labouring classes...(1), (2), and (3) represent habitual moderate consumers.' Mr. G. Godfrey, Commissioner, Assam Valley District, says, 'Chiefly imported coolies from Bengal or immigrants from that province...The immigrant Musalmans from lower Bengal are addicted to ganja-smoking'. Mr. J. D. Anderson, Deputy Commissioner; Officiating Commissioner of Excise, says, 'The Sylhet Musalmans and bairagis are the only portion of our indigenous population who consume ganja. They are, in fact, a portion of the ganja-smoking population of Eastern Bengal. Any facts which the Commission may gather as to the use of ganja in East Bengal will apply equally to the districts of Sylhet, Cachar, and Goalpara. In the remaining districts the use of ganja is almost entirely confined to immigrant coolies, to the Gurkha sepoys in the Assam regiments, and the up-country constables, in the police...Coolies from Behar and the North-Western Provinces and servants from those districts, Nepalese in the Assam Regiment, traders, cowherds, etc., the indigenous (Bengali) population of the districts of Sylhet, Cachar, and Goalpara all consume ganja. The use of the drug is chiefly restricted to the lower and labouring classes'. Mr. J. L. Herald, Deputy Commissioner, Silchar, Cachar, says, 'Almost all classes of Hindus contain instances of ganja consumers, but it is generally used to a large extent by lower castes and semiaboriginal castes.' Ishan Chandra Patranavish, Bengali, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Sylhet, says, 'The people of lower classes, generally such as charal, zugi, patni, tea-garden coolies, sweepers, malis, dhobas, dhulis, etc., and fakirs and sanyasis or mendicants smoke ganja.' Krishna Chandra Sanyal, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Sylhet, says, 'Ganja is used by the lower classes, middle classes, rarely higher classes...Working men, fishermen, bearers, mendicants are moderate habitual consumers of ganja and siddhi...Sweepers, some mendicants, Doms, licentious youths, etc., take to habitual excessive ganja smoking.' Masdar Ali, Pleader, Sylhet, says, 'Ganja is smoked by fishermen, boatmen, cultivators, palanquin bearers, day-labourers...' Babu Abantinath Datta, Kayastha, Pleader, Judge's Court, Cachar, says, 'The lower classes of people smoke ganja more largely than the upper classes. Those who get into this habit are invariably low class men...It is a very common vice among the singing party.' Haribilash Agarwala, Merchant, Tezpur, says, 'Lower classes, specially doms (fishermen), tea-garden coolies and cultivators.'  Jadu Ram Barooah, Assamese Kayasth, Local Board Member; Pensioned Overseer, Public Works Department, Dibrugarh, says, 'Smoking ganja among Assamese is .. most common among the up-country people and coolies,...Labourers, songsters...' Colonel M. M. Bowie, Commissioner, Nerbudda Division, says, 'Ganja-smokers will, I believe, be found among all classes of the people, but it is the labouring classes that chiefly consume it...The habitual moderate consumers of ganja are, I believe, mostly men who have hard bodily labour, such as palki-bearers, hamals, etc.' Mr. F. C. Anderson, Officiating Commissioner, Nagpur, says, 'It cannot be said that ganja smoking is limited to certain classes, though its use is most common among the labouring classes...The habitual moderate ganja smokers belong chiefly to the labouring classes.' Mr. A. C. Duff, Deputy Commissioner, Jubbulpore, says, 'Ganja is smoked by a large percentage of the labouring class...almost universally...I should say that the great bulk of the labouring class are habitual moderate consumers.' Bhargow Laxmon Gadgit, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Nagpur, says, 'Labourers, including dâk-runners, fishermen, palki-bearers, and agriculturists...Habitual consumers of ganja are  the labouring classes.' Raghunath Rao, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Damoh, says, 'ganja smoking .. is, however, greatly used by those classes of people more or less who cannot use liquor, but, generally speaking...lower classes of labourers greatly use ganja all over India...The ganja smokers are mostly the poorer and lower classes of the population, such as...Day-labourers and agriculturists.'  Batuk Bharty, Superintendent of Kalahandi State, says, 'All classes smoke ganja, specially Paiks and Katkis...These are mainly from the labouring classes, Nalia Paiks, who were a sort of militia in the time of the late Raja, and the Katki people.' T. Goondiah, Tahsildar, Janjgir, Bilaspur District, says, 'Generally, labouring classes smoke ganja. It is also smoked by artisans and bairagis and gosains (religious mendicants). It is smoked throughout the province.' Munshi Thakht Singh, pensioned Tahsildar, Bata, District Damoh, says, 'Ganja is chiefly used by the lower classes and castes. It is used by all who have to do hard manual labour. Very few such could be found who don't use it.' Vinayak Balkrishna Khare, Brahmin, Excise Daroga, Nagpur, says, 'labouring classes on the railways and agriculture and others;' Anandi Pershad, Excise Daroga, Hoshangabad, says, 'Ganja is generally much consumed by the...sailors, water-carriers, shoemakers, palanquin bearers and other menial classes... Persons of high caste very seldom smoke it...' Doorga Das Sen, Baidya, Assistant Surgeon, Warora, says, 'As a rule, the low caste people smoke ganja ; about 15 per cent., I understand, of the workers of this colliery are used to it...ganja by the low caste people, such as Chamars, Koris, Passees, etc., and some among the Muhammadans.' Muhammad Habibulla, 1st grade Hospital Assistant, Seoni, says, 'the lower castes probably smoke more than the higher castes; especially do the ...labouring classes indulge in ganja smoking...Labourers, such as Dhimars and Gonds, etc., doing hard work, chiefly form class...' Mir Zamin Ali, Pensioned Hospital Assistant, Jabalpur, says, 'Almost all the sadhus and fakirs and a greater part of labourers smoke ganja. ..The excessive consumers of ganja in this province are mainly taken from the low classes of the people, who are labourers, sadhus and fakirs (a sort of beggars and devotees).' Khushali Ram, Honorary Magistrate, Chhindwara, says, 'All castes smoke ganja, especially...Ahirs, Gonds, of whom the whole castes are addicted to this practice. Members of all the lower castes smoke ganja and some of the higher castes, but among the latter is considered as a disgrace...' Gangadharroa Madho Chitnavis, Honorary Magistrate, Nagpur, says, 'Some very few cultivators do smoke ganja, but the generality of persons who mostly smoke it are artizans, labourers, sweepers, Bhoees or palkibearers...Gonds, Raiha-dees, Bhamtees, Garodees, syces, and others.' Diwan Prem Singh, Zamindar, Bilaspur District, says, 'Sadhus and the common people are the ordinary users of ganja, both Muhammadans and Hindus...' Lall Umed Singh, Zamindar, Bilaspur District, says, 'Ganja is freely smoked by all classes, but especially by sadhus, bairagis, and labourers...Cartmen are especially addicted to its use.' Chandi Pershad, Brahmin, Malguzar, and President, Municipal Committee, Chanda, says, 'Musalmans...Nais, Barhais, and Gohars, a few Dakhani Brahmins and Chattris, and Banias, all these are habitual consumers.'  Rao Sahib Balwantrao Govindrao Bhuskute, Brahmin, Jagirdar of Timborni, Barhanpar, Nimar District, says, 'It is more freely used by the lower order of society, agricultural classes excepted...Artists, whose trade is of a sedentary nature and requires application, are more or less addicted to ganja smoking...It should, however, be borne in mind that members of higher orders of society are not usually addicted to ganja smoking although they are placed in circumstances indicated above.' Rev. O. Lohr, Medical Missionary, Bisrampur, Raipur District, says, 'Foremost are the Gonds and bairagis, Rawats or Gwalas, and Pankas;...The persons indulging in the drug (ganja) are mostly such as lead an idle life, like bairagis, Gonds, beggars, and Rawats, who follow cattle and dance a great deal.' Adhar Singh Gour, Kshattri, Barrister-at-law, Hoshangabad, says, 'domestic servants'.  Mr.Tara Dass Banerji, President, District Council, Raipur, says, 'Ganja smoking is confined to the lower classes as a rule. When a man belonging to the better sort does indulge in it, he tries to keep it unknown to his neighbours, as it is considered disgraceful for a respectable man to do so. In Bengal the classes who indulge in it are generally boatmen, fishermen, mat-makers (domes), professional lathials (clubmen), factory hands, postal runners, petty shopkeepers, professional musicians, syces and mahauts...and in a less extent masons and carpenters...Of the...musicians it may be said that at least 50 per cent. of them indulge in it;..' Babu Kalidas Chowdhry, Brahmin, Pleader, Hoshangabad, says, 'Ganja is...principally by the...lower classes who depend on physical labour for their livelihood everywhere...'  Lala Nandkeshore, Agartcal, Merchant, Banker, Contractor, Malgoozar, Honorary Magistrate, Secretary, Municipal Committee, and Member, District Council, Saugor, says, 'Day-labourers doing hard work generally use it everywhere.' Girdhari Lal, Oswal Bania, Merchant and Banker, Seoni-Chaparam says, 'The labouring and artisan classes are habitual smokers of ganja, especially Goads, Pardhans, Nais (barbers), and masons.' Husen Khan, Pathan, Abkari Contractor, Seoni-Chapara, says, 'The labouring classes and the artizans and the working agriculturists are the chief consumers of ganja.' Cowasjee Meherwanjee Hatty-Daroo, Parsi, Merchant and Abkari Contractor, Seoni-Chapara, says, 'habitual moderate consumers are mostly labouring class of people of Hindu, Gond, and Muhammadan community.' Lala Ramshahi and Lala Sitaram,  Abkari Contractors, Nagpur, say, 'people of low caste, and labourers generally use it (ganja) in the Central Provinces.' Babu Muna Lall, Ex-Contractor of Ganja, Jabalpur, says, 'I estimate that 50 per cent. of my coolies use ganja.' Mr. E. Turner, Collector of Madura, says, 'Also some Maruvars, Pallars, Agambadiars and Muhammadans.' Mr. J. Thomson, Collector of Chingleput, says, 'Ganja smoking is said to be prevalent among the sepoys of the Native Army, both retired and in active service, to a slight extent.' Mr. L. C. Miller, Acting Collector of Trichinopoly, says, 'Smoking of ganja is confined to the lower classes. Generally...some of the worn out pensioned sepoys and few others who cannot afford to purchase liquor smoke ganja...The people are of the lower classes.' Mr. H. Campbell, Acting Sub-Collector, Guntoor, says, 'People belonging to the lower classes, who are addicted to the use of intoxicants generally, also smoke ganja.' Mr. E. L. Vaughan, Acting Sub-Collector, Dindigul, says, 'Religious mendicants as well as day-labourers smoke ganja...The lower orders form the main class'. Mr. H. F. W. Gillman, Acting Head Assistant Collector, Nilgiris, says, 'The classes who smoke the drug in this division are Chetties and Muhammadans, and the aboriginial tribes, Koters, Kurumbers, etc.' Mr. F. Levy, Acting Deputy Commissioner, Salt and Abkari, Southern Division, says, 'The labouring classes generally.' P. Pundarikakshudu, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Venukunda, Kistna District, says, 'the lower orders of Sudras, Muhammadans, pariahs and chucklers...Ganja is used as medicine for belly-ache, cough, and such like diseases.' M. R. R. Dewan Bahadur S. Venkata Ramadas Naidu, Deputy Collector, Godavari, says, 'All classes of natives and Muhammadans,...Bondilis...especially smoke ganjayi....Class (a) [habitual excessive consumers] under ganja is represented by Muhammadans, pariahs and lower classes of Hindus....Bondilis, pensioned sepoys, Dommaras and other wandering tribes contribute to class (c) [habitual excessive consumers] under bhang.' Dewan Bahadur K. V. Lakshamana Row Garu, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, North Arcot, says, '...irulars, and some low caste people.' M. Azizuddeen, Sahib Bahadur, Deputy Collector, North Arcot, says, 'Rajputs...and some Sudras smoke ganja and drink bhang and eat other preparations made from the hemp plant...' B. Narayanmurty, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Ganjam, says, 'Much of the Uriya population and some Telugus and Khonds (hill people)...smoke ganja...Those that resort to ganja smoking are mainly taken from the lower castes having no social position;' Mr. J. H. Gwynne, Deputy Collector, Wynaad, Malabar District, says, 'Chetties, Paniers, Kurumars, and a few Muhammadans...From the cultivating classes and hill tribes.' M. R. Ry. P. Veeraswami Naidu, Deputy Collector, Masulipatam, says, 'generally working classes.' A. Krishnamacharulu, Tahsildar, Bapatla, Kistna District, says, 'The heads of native athletic schools called vastads are said to use bhang are then eaten under the different names of majum and halva.' P. S. Singaravelu Pillai, Tahsildar of Erode, says, '...sepoys...' M. Bimachari, Tahsildar, Rayadrug, says, 'military people.' Munshi S. Mohamed Under Sahib, Tahsildar, Suthanapully Taluk, Kistna District, says, 'the retired peons and pensioned sepoys of the native army, and also some low classes, such as Vudders (tank diggers), Yanadis, and Chundus (village watchers), and Chenchus (hill tribes).' P. Ram Rao, Tahsildar of Hadgalli, says, 'Ganja is used in smoking ...linuayets, jengamas...' A. Katchapeswara Iyer, Brahmin, Stationary Sub-Magistrate, Cuddapah Taluk, says, 'Habitual moderate consumers are generally of the lower order of the population...The occasional moderate consumers come from the class of men above the lower order, while the occasional excessive consumers generally belong to the lower orders of the Muhammadan, Rajput and Mahratta communities.' N. Soondramiah , Brahmin, Deputy Tahsildar, Ootacamund, says, 'Peons, etc., attached to Government offices, menial servants following European visitors, and different classes of persons coming to weekly market from low countries are the principal consumers besides the above three classes of persons.' R. Saminatha Iyer, Brahmin, Acting Deputy Tahsildar, Coonoor, says, 'Ganja is used by some Muhammadans,...some of the other classes of people who have come from Bangalore and Mysore in Coonoor, and Wellington and other isolated places...travellers and labourers generally resort to intoxication from ganja.' R. C. Rama Iyengor, Brahmin, Village Magistrate, Berangy, Mudanapulee Taluk, Cuddapah District, says, 'The said kali is used for smoking by poor class of people and by those who lead a wandering life...' K. Narainaswamy Naidu, Velama, Huzoor Sheristadar, Masulipatam, says, 'wandering tribes of professional beggars among the Hindus'. Mr. H. E. G. Mills, Superintendent, Central Jail, Trichinopoly, says, 'mustans...'  Mr. R. W. Morgan, Deputy Conservator of Forests, Ootacamund, Nilgiris, says, 'Sholagurs are much addicted to it, and more than half the tribe smoke it.' Mr. C. E. Hardie, District Forest Officer, Manantoddy, North Malabar, says, 'All classes in the Wynaad who live in the jungles smoke ganja; probably 50 per cent. of the population...Raiyats of all classes living in the jungles, criminals and beggars.' Captain F. L. Jones, Commandant, 3rd Madras Lancers, Bellary, says, 'also low caste people and Bengalis.' Surgeon-Major Chatterjee, Medical Officer in charge 13th Madras Infantry, Cannanore, says, 'I have said before that only low class people smoke them.' Surgeon-Captain C. F. Fearnside, Acting District Surgeon, Ganjam, says, 'the habits of life generally are of labouring poor class.' Surgeon-Major R. Pemberton, Civil Surgeon, Cochin, says, 'In this district by the Konkanies, banias, fakirs, and especially amongst the lowest of these classes. In British and Native Cochin, Konkanies, fakirs, banias and the lowest classes of these different sects use the drug. Principally from the poorer classes, and those who are unwilling to do an honest day's work.' T. M. Cheriyan, Manantoddy, says, 'It is generally used in Wynaad by many classes of people, such as Nairs, Rajputs, and the jungle tribes, Paniars, Kurichers, Kurumbers, Kaders, etc., and they grow the plant each one for his own use...By many classes, Nairs, Rajputs, Kurichers, Kurumbers, Paniars, Kaders, etc., ganja is used...' Apothecary K. Vasudeva Rau, Brahmin, Adirampatnam, Tanjore District, says, 'A small proportion of the lower classes uses it in Bellary district.' Apothecary G. A. W. Vellones, Chetambaram, South Arcot, says, 'The lower classes, and apparently Muhammadans, smoke ganja...Working classes, wandering classes, and those in low condition.' Apothecary N. H. Daniel, In charge Police Hospital, Koraput, Vizagapatam District, says, 'Ganja by the lower classes generally;' Apothecary Muhammad Asadulla, Ellore, Godavary District, says, 'The majority of the cultivators of this drug are Muhammadans, although Hindus or Cummas also follow this example to some extent...' K. Jagannadham Naidu, Medical Officer, Parlakimedi, Ganjam District, says, 'Generally lower classes of people and bairagis smoke ganja...Smoking ganja is prevalent only in the lower classes.' Assistant Surgeon Saldhana, Salem, says, 'The hill people that cultivate hemp on a large scale are almost exclusively the Malayalis ;...Mostly used by low classes of Hindus and Muhammadans;...' Hospital Assistant T. Ranganaya Kulu Naidoo, Rajahmundry, Godavari District, says, 'the poor of labouring classes smoking ganja largely in mattams and choultries...A few of lower labouring classes.' Hospital Assistant M. Iyaswamy Pillay, Saint Thomas' Mount, Madras, says, 'People of lower classes often resort to this practice more than the higher and middle classes in this part of the district;' Hospital Assistant M . V. Ramanugulu Naidu, Peddapur, Godavari District, says, 'Generally by lower orders...It is practised more by labouring classes.' Hospital Assistant I. Parthasarathy Chetty, Penukonda, Anantapur District, says, 'Very seldom are found instances where raiyats or agricultural cultivators are engaged in the growth of the plants for private consumption. But it occurs that raiyats grow a few of these plants in their fields to answer the occasional demands of fakirs or gosains...' P. S. Mootooswamy Modelliar, Retired Native Surgeon, Tanjore, says, 'In this town Muhammadans and Hindus of the lower classes smoke ganja...Muhammadans of the poorer classes,...and the lazy and the indolent among the non-Brahmin Hindus of the poorer classes.'  C. Muthu Kumaraswamy Mudelliar, Zamindar, Chunampet, Chingleput, says, 'The few that use here belong to the flesh-eating lower classes.' M. Etheragulu Pillay, Land-owner, Bezwada, Kistna District, says, 'The lower classes, especially Muhammadans, smoke ganja.' P. Seshachallam Naidooo, Balija, Landlord, Merchant, and Chairman, Vetapollem, Kistna District, says, 'a very small portion of low caste smoke ganja throughout the district.' M. R. Ry. V. Venkataro Iyer, Brahman, Managar, Ettayapuram Estate, Tinnevelly District, says, 'The lower order of Mahrattas...' Lanka Kristniengar, Vaishnava Brahmin, Chairman, Municipal Council, Srirangam, Trichinopoly District, says, 'Muhammadans as a class smoke ganja freely and frequently, but not the charas'. Mr. W. Taylor, Chairman, Municipal Council, Parlakimedi, Ganjam District, says, 'more generally by...the poorer classes.' K. Subbarayadu Puntalu, Brahmin, Chairman of the Adoni Municipal Council, Bellary District, says, 'Mainly Muhammadans. Saley or weaver class people and Mahratta people.' Rungo Srinivasa Rao, Brahmin, Chairman, Union Panchayat, Madakasira, Anantpur District, says, 'Fakirs and Boyas, etc., lower class.' Rev. H. J. Goffin, Missionary, Kadiri, Cuddapah District, says, 'they are mostly of the poor and lower classes.' Rev. J. Desigachari, Missionary , Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Badvel, Cuddapah District, says, 'Muhammadans chiefly and Sudras, of lower orders , i.e., lazy men. .. Hard-working class of people, labourers, boatmen, and jutka-drivers.' Rev. W. H. Campbell, Missionary, London Missionary Society, Cuddapah, says, 'All classes of Sudras, agricultural and artisan, use it ; so do the low classes, such as Waddes, Mala and Madigas.' Rev. John S. Chandler, Missionary Madura, says, 'Muhammadans aid ascetics and the low castes use it, chiefly by smoking.' Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, 'The classes who smoke ganja.—...goldsmiths and carpenters, weavers, and men of the Vedantist sect, and soldiers and policemen who do service in feverish districts...Of the poorer classes, the goldsmiths, carpenters, vendors of sweetmeats, and such people as are of a rather unsettled habit of life, constantly moving from place to place, e.g., soldiers, police, salt and other peons, etc., use it; although, from any information gleaned about these, I am not convinced that the habit is at all general or even noticeably prominent as are the habits of liquordrinking and opium-using...' Rev. J. F. Burditt, Missionary, Narsaravupet, Kistna District, says, 'Muhammadans and Telugus of all the classes, more or less,...chiefly also the aboriginal tribes.' Rev. J. Heinrichs, Missionary, Vinukunda, Kistna District, says, 'The waddis or well-diggers use it perhaps more freely than any other class. Men of comparatively low moral status indulge in its use.' Very Rev. A. Chelvum, Roman Catholic Diocese, Vizagapatam, says, 'The Musalmans who consume the hemp drugs are tailors, peons, chowkidars, pailwans, and men in service, as watchmen at private houses and public buildings.' N. Kothundaramayya, Brahmin, Editor of "Suneeti" Rajahmundry, Godavari District, says, 'Brahmins, goldsmiths, Musalmans, Sudras...' K. Vematasoobiah, Veishya, Trader and Pleader, District Munsiff's Court, Cuddapah, says, 'In this district Musalmans smoke ganja... Their habits are dilatory.' Ganjam Vencataratnam, Brahmin, 1st Grade Pleader, Coconada, Godavery District, says, 'a few Musalmans, Bondhilis, and Sudras smoke ganjai or use its mixture in this district.' B. Chatterjea, Brahmin, Pleader, District Court, Ganjam, and Chairman, Berhampore Municipality, says, 'professional singers, smoke ganja.' P. C. Anunthacharlu, Brahmin, Chairman, Municipal Council, and Government Pleader, Bellary, says, 'Boyas, Kurubhas, Musalmans, and some other lower orders make ganja.' V. Siva Yogi, Brahmin, 1st Grade Pleader and .Municipal Chairman, Vellore, says, 'A special class known as the Malyalees cultivate it. They live apart from others on the hills...' P. Kesava Pillai, Karnam, Pleater, and Honorary Secretary of the Gooty People's Association, says, 'Muhammadans, Chetty balijas, fishermen, males, madigas and linga balijas...Lazy habits of people who resort to places where fakirs and such people lounge.' Hon'ble A. Sabapathy Moodelliar, Rai Bahadur, Merchant, Bellary, says, 'Ganja is generally smoked by workmen, poor people who require intoxication,...in this province the ganja smokers are generally low class people...' Kommireddi Narasinga Row Nayudu Garu, Merchant, Coconada, says, 'Some low class people and beggars smoke ganja commonly.' Mirza Mehdy Ispahani, Merchant, Madras, says, 'No, they are of the same class of ordinary people as other cultivators.' Mr. D. Maneckji, Parsi, Merchant and Contractor, Calicut, says, 'In Wynaad the growers are the punniers and some canadies, and they prepare the drugs... Very few, and that also of the poor class of Malabar Hindus, smoke it'. Perianna Chetty, Potter, Ganja Shop-keeper, Kitchipolayam, Salem, says, 'Ganja is smoked by the following classes of people :—...Mahrattas, Muhammadans, Rajputs, and a few other Hindus...It is used in Salem, Chittur, Coimbatore, Madura, Trichinopoly and Tanjore districts.'  Abdul Khader, Agent of the Ganja Shopkeeper, Rajahmundry, says, 'Weavers use much. No particular class uses this. Coolies also sometimes use it..' T. Ratnasami Nadar, Arrack Supply Contractor, Malabar, says, 'The practice seems to be more common in these parts among the Muhammadans than among Tamilians.' Angappa Gonuden, Blacksmith, Salem, says, 'These consumers are mostly taken from the artizan, weaving and other labouring classes.' Samdasu Bavaji, Brahmin, Priest in the Matt of Sri Jagannadha Swamy, Rajahmundry, says, 'labourers, weavers and even family men without distinction of caste use it.' Baldevdas, Brahmin, Priest of Hanuman Math, Rajahmundry, says, 'labourers and men of loose character use this. Nearly a fourth part of the population are in the habit of consuming it.'  Mr. E. J. Ebden, Collector, Ahmednagar, says, 'The majority of the purchasers appear to have been men of the labouring classes, i.e., husbandmen and coolies, and poor Musalmans; and craftsmen, such as weavers, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, etc., And in the majority (80 per cent.) of cases the purchase did not exceed one pice worth, which is a clear indication that the drug is a poor man's luxury...After reading the Gazetteer, I was somewhat astonished at the result of the rough census of smokers and drinkers throughout the district, which gave a total of only 6,429, or about .7 per cent. of the population. On comparing this result, however, with the retail consumption, which last year reached an average of only 1,760 toles per day, I am not inclined to think that my census is very far from correct.' Mr. F. S. P. Lely, Collector of Surat, says, 'Bhang is chiefly drunk by goldsmiths (Sonis), Jains, Brahmins..' Mr. J. Monteath, Collector and District Magistrate, Bijapur, says, 'So far as I can learn, the smoking of ganja is almost confined in this district to Muhammadans of the lower class,...weavers, and some domestic servants.' Mr. H. Woodward, Collector, Kaira, Gujarat, says, 'The practice of smoking ganja is general among all the lower and poorer classes'. Mr. A. Cumine, Acting Collector, Dhulia, Khandesh, says, 'There cannot be said to be different classes or different habits of life or circumstances amongst these wild tribes, I think.' Mr. C. G. Dodgson, Assistant Magistrate and Collector, Khandesh, says, 'The broad distinction between the use of ganja and bhang is that the former is chiefly confined to the poorer and lower classes of society.' Rao Bahadur Lallubhai Gordhandas, Vania, Huzur Deputy Collector, Nasik, says, 'Habitual moderate consumers come from all classes, particularly from the lower strata. Occasional moderate consumers can be traced to all castes, not excluding Brahmins and Lingayets.' Rao Bahadur Bhimbhai Kirpa Ram, Brahmin, Huzur Deputy Collector of Surat, says, '...low class Brahmins; a few artizans also smoke...The habitual consumers are chiefly goldsmiths, jewellers...' Rao Bahadur Vyankatesh Bapuji Wadekar, Deputy Collector, Ahmednagar, says, 'There is hardly a village in this district where it is not smoked more or less by the above-named people or cultivators and other labouring class...These people are mainly taken from the following classes—  Labourers,...traders and servants.' Rao Bahadur Bhaskar Rao Ramchandra Heblikar, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Sholapur, says, 'Ganja is used by weavers,...more than others. Bhang is in the same way used by Marwaris. Boja is used by Mahars and other low castes. Majum is also used by Marwaris to a greater extent than others...The people who smoke ganja generally are weavers, Pardesis,...and some Muhammadans.' Rao Bahadur Rango Ramchandra Bhardi, Deputy Collector and Native Assistant to the Commissioner, Poona, Central Division, says, 'The classes of the people who smoke it are generally...weavers, labourers, and menial servants,...and musical performers of lower classes.' Rao Bahadur Rudragowda Chanvirgowda Artal, Lengayet, Deputy Collector, Bijapur, says, 'Weavers, fakirs, gosavis and day-labourers mainly use these drugs.' Rao Bahadur Ramchandra Rajaram Mule, Deshastha Brahmin, Administrator of Jath, in Southern Mahratta Country, says, '...kaikadis, ramosis, bhamtias or uchalias (professional pickpockets), weavers, dyers, and many of the lower strata of the population use ganja...' Rao Bahadur V. H. Shikre, Brahmin, Huzur Deputy Collector, Alibagh, Kolaba District, says, 'It is generally used for smoking by a...few of the working classes...habitual moderate and occasional moderate consumers belong to all classes of the people, especially the working and low classes.' Narayan Rao Bhikaji Joglekar, Brahmin, Pensioned Deputy Collector ; now Karbhari of the Aundh Stale, says, 'The classes who drink bhang ghota are...mostly cooks, water-carriers, song sters, and other licentious characters.' Mr. W. Almon, Assistant Collector, Abkari Department, Bombay, says, 'Ganja is smoked principally by Hindu sadhus and labourers, and by Muhammadans of the working classes,...These drugs are mainly consumed by labourers and religious mendicants.' Rao Saheb Pandurand Thakar, Deshastha Brahmin, Mamlatdar, Pandharpur, Sholapur District, at present auditing the jamabandi accounts of the Poona  District, Poona, says, 'Ganja is also smoked by artizans and men of handicraft, such as smiths, weavers and drummers, who are required to work hard and continuously for a long time during day and night. In a few instances prostitutes and persons of loose character smoke ganja.' Rao Saheb Shesho Krisna Mudkavi, Mamlatdar of Taluka Bijapur, Bijapur, says, '...salis, koshtis, Musa-mans, and occasionally singers chiefly smoke ganja...class mentioned above generally comprises weavers and momins;...generally poorer classes are addicted to this.' Rao Sahib Krishnaji Ballal Deval, Chitpavan, Brahmin, Mamlatdar and Magistrate, 1st Class, Chiplon, says, '...nightmongers, dramatie company, and tamasha dancers as a class do smoke ganja. Generally speaking, idle folks of all classes do smoke and drink ganja and bhang in special places where they assemble to chit-chat...' Balkrishna Narayan Vaidya, Parbhu, State Karbhari of Sangli, says, 'Those who cultivate hemp for its narcotic properties are of the same class as other agricultural cultivators...Moderate consumers, habitual as well as occasional, are taken from all the classes of population, especially the lower classes.' Dadhabhai Burjorjee Guzder, Parsi, District Abkari In spector, Ahmednagar, says, 'the principal class is that of marwadis, labourers,...who particularly indulge in them.' Khan Sahib Nasarvanji Edalji Sethna, Parsi, Abkari Inspector, Satara, says, 'The classes of people who prepare the preparations are the classes who use them. The preparations are ghota and dudhia, and these are prepared by persons from amongst the agricultural and labouring classes,...Persons from amongst the agriculturists, labourers, cartmen,...ghisaris (blacksmiths), tambolis (pan-sellers), bagwans (fruiterers), attar (colour sellers), maner (bangadi preparers),...bahurupi (actors in theatres), sarwans (camel drivers), and persons from amongst the class of peons, whether in Goverment service or private service, smoke ganja.' Yashvanth Nilkanth, Patana Prabhu, Superintendent, Office of Survey Commissioner, and Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Bombay, says, 'the artizan classes, both Hindu and Muhammadan. Skilful artizans have a bad name for ganjasmoking, and only a few professional singers, artists, engravers and the like are free from this vice. The use of ganja is so common among such classes that if a master worker is complimented on his skill, he will in acknowledgment say—"That is only because I prepared the ganja for my master for so many years"— i.e., served so long an apprenticeship. Peons and messengers are addicted to this habit, but not as a class.'  Mr. F. T. V. Austin, District Superintendent of Police, Surat, says, 'it is chiefly so used by the lower classes...' Rao Sahib PranshankarA, Brahmin, Inspector of Police, Detective Branch, Bombay, says, '...pardesis, some goldsmiths,..' Ganesh Krishna Garde, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Poona City, says, 'Ganja smoking...the proportion is greater among the lower classes than the higher. It is prevalent among the working people in the various trades of large cities (goldsmiths, blacksmiths, carpenters, etc.),...Ganja and charas smokers are found generally among the lower classes...' Uttamram Jeewanram, Itchapooria, Audesh, Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Bombay and Surat, says, 'Ganja is smoked by...Wanis, Kunbis, Ghanchis,...' Keshowram Haridat, Chcepooria, Audesh Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Render, Surat and Bombay, says, 'Ganja is used by the low classes of Muhammadans...kolis, kunbis, banias, and Brahmins.' Mr. Purbhuram Jeewanram, Nagar Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Bombay, says, 'men of the lower class and poor men use ganja...People of the working classes also use bhang.' Vithaldas Pranjiwandass, Bhunksali Landlord and Trader, late Intoxicating Drugs Farmer, Bombay, says, 'Ganja is smoked by...Muhammadan labourers...' Rao Bahadur Huchrao Achut Harihar, Deshast Brahmin, Pleader, District Court, Belgaum, says, '(some) professional songsters use ganja for smoking.' Rao Bahadur Vishwanath Keshawa Joglekar, Brahmin, Sowkar, Karajgi in Dharwar District, says, 'the bulk of the smokers will be found amongst the lower classes...' Gurappa Rachappa, Lengayet, Office of Shetti (Revenue and Police), Dharwar, says, 'musicians (gavyis), etc...' Laldas Laxmonji, Kshatriya, Solicitor's Clerk, Bombay, says, 'Kshatris, banias and Hindus of the labouring class chiefly smoke ganja.' Mr. R. Giles, Collector, Shikarpur, says, 'excessive drinkers are for the most part...men of low caste.' Khan Bahadur Kadirdad Khan Gul Khan, C.I.E., Deputy Collector, Naushahro Sub-division, says, 'Charas and ganja are smoked by people of very low class and inferior habits...' Rao Bahadur Lashmansing Matthraji, Police Inspector, Hyderabad, Sind, says, 'The consumers are chiefly taken from the following classes — ...shikaris, dheds, mochis and other labouring classes.' Mr. Geo. Judd, Head Preventive Officer, Karachi, says,  'The poorer classes generally...' Mr. Geo. J. Barker, Abkari Inspector, Karachi, says, 'Ganja smoked by Purdesees, Cutchees, Mawaris, low caste Maharattas...Charas by Pathans, Punjabees, Seedees, Beloochees, and other Sindhi Muhammadans,...Habitual excessive consumers, Sindi Muham-madans of the lower classes, ...' Rao Bahadur Alumal Trikamdas Bhojwani, Deputy Educational Inspector, Karachi, says, 'Ganja is smoked by nearly the whole or the greater majority of...the labouring classes (particularly the Muhammadan labourers in large towns), by the Katchis, Bhils and Pardesis. The Muhammadan labourers of large cities in Sind are said to delight more in smoking charas than ganja...Hindu merchants and traders, including shop-keepers and elderly retired Government servants and Muhammadans of the artisan class, are habitual moderate consumers of bhang.' Dr. S. M. Kaka, Medical Officer of Health, Karachi, says, 'The consumers of all the hemp drugs are derived from the poorer classes mainly.' Seth Vishindas Nihalchand, Zamindar, Merchant, and Contractor, Manjoo, Karachi, says, 'there are charas and ganja houses, where poor persons and labourers can smoke the drugs on payment. But...labourers have charas and ganja always ready with them, and have also got handy the pipe in which they are smoked, so that they can use them wherever they feel inclined.' Rev. A. E. Ball, Missionary, Church Missionary Society, Karachi, says, 'lower classes of Muhammadans, such as coolies, etc. Nearly all Pathans smoke charas.' Mahomed Laik, Mukhtarkar of Hyderabad, says, 'In Sind persons of Kor classes and Pathans smoke them. Besides sanyasis, nangas, suthrias, kaheris and other fakirs smoke them, and they belong to low classes of people...suthrias, bhagats, machhis (fishmongers), mirbahars, and kanjars (followers of prostitutes), boatmen.' Tirithdas Hasrajmal, Member of the firm of Denmal Sachanond, Karachi, says, 'Sudras, low class people,...smoke ganja and charas in otaras and three-fourths of Hindu awaghars...Half Hindus and Mussalmans drink bhang. If the habitual drinkers cannot get bhang pounded and sifted, they eat it raw and drink water after it. Often low class Mussalmans in otaras and illiterate Hindu fakirs in tikanas do this...Sowcars, merchants and retail shop-keepers and pensioners use bhang in moderation...low class men use bhang, charas and ganja in excess.' Krishnarao Hari, Officiating Extra Assistant Commissioner, Buldana, says, 'The principal classes of people from which the habitual or occasional moderate or excessive consumers of the hemp drug are taken, are the Pardeshis,...' Waman Ganesh, Tahsildar, Wun, says, 'Generally...labourers smoke ganja.' Vickooji Narain, Tahsildar, Kathapur, says, 'Many classes of the people smoke ganja, but chiefly...labourers smoke ganja.' G. V. Kot, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Amraoti, says, 'Ganja is used generally by the lowest classes of Hindus and Muhammadans...The smokers are generally of the lowest grades of society...' Khan Bahadur Nawab Salamulla Khan, Jagirdar, Deulghat, Buldana District, says, 'Muhammadans, Hindus, low caste Mahars, etc., have been found in the habit of smoking ganja all over the province...' Mr. A. Boppanna, Planter, Bepunaad, Green Hills, Coorg, says, 'Wild tribes, such as Palayars, Kapalas, Karaters,...and Malabar coolies and Muhammadans. Individuals here and there of the Eraver class smoke ganja; but it is quite common among the other classes mentioned by me. In the estates and jungles...' Mukkati Iyappa, Cultivator, Davanagiri, Coorg, says, 'Mostly aboriginal tribes and other low class labourers.' Babu Kedar Nath, Head Clerk of the Political Agent, Kalat, says, '...also Pathans and Baluchis.' 

Evidence of large numbers of users among the working classes

From the diverse set of occupations associated with the lower classes and castes, we can get an understanding of the importance of ganja to a diverse range of working classes of people in India. Not only was ganja used across such a wide variety of occupations among the working classes, but also the extent of usage within a class was very significant. We do not see percentages of users in single digits, rather we see percentages that range quite often from 50 percent of a particular occupational class to a whopping 90 percent in some cases. This is all-pervasive usage of ganja among the labouring and working classes, not a fleeting habit indulged in by a miniscule percentage of the population. These huge percentages indicate the importance and efficacy of ganja to these communities, and the long-standing patterns of usage by them. Babu A. K. Ray, Sub-Divisional Magistrate, Bangaon, Jessore District, says, 'Labouring classes—fishermen, palki-bearers,...not less than 33 per cent. of these throughout Bengal...coolies and beggars.' Babu Rajani Prasad Neogy, Excise Deputy Collector, Mymensingh, says, 'The following classes of the people smoke ganja. The proportion of each class is also noted against it. Per cent. Boatmen and fishermen 25 Chandals 12 Malis 50 Dhobis 12 Bhadralok 6 Sudras or serving classes 25 Muchies 50 Banias 12 Bagdis 50 ... The following classes (a) eat bhang— Per cent. Up-country men 30 Bhadrolok 25 Artizans 50 Sudras 50 Cultivators 30 Banias 30 Bagdis 30 Fishermen and boatmen 30 Chandals 30...' Babu Gour Das Bysack, Retired Deputy Collector, Calcutta, says, 'In Calcutta ganja and charas are used mostly by the Hindustanis, who mostly live in and about Bara Bazar. It is very difficult to ascertain the exact proportion, but, as far as I can gather, ganja is smoked by about 50 or 60 per cent. of low classes of Hindustanis, Marwaris, specially Marwari Brahmins, Kahars, Kurmis, and other low classes...' Babu Hem Chunder Kerr, Kayasth, Retired Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Sub-Registrar of Sealdah, says, 'the artisan class and the syces, sweepers, and palki-bearers, and a few persons of the middle class...make use of the drug. To my estimation the actual total of smokers in the Lower Provinces and the NorthWest may be reckoned at about two lakhs of persons...' Babu Digendra Nath Pal, Kayasth, Deputy Inspector of Excise, 24-Parganas, says, 'Ganja is smoked generally by all labouring class and a limited number of upper class. I think about 75 per cent. of the labouring class use ganja. But the percentage of upper class of people who use ganja is not even 5 per cent...' Hon'ble F. R. S. Collier, Magistrate and Collector, 24-Parganas, says 'I think about 75 per cent. of the adult population of the labouring lower class of people smoke ganja...'  Babu Sir Chunder Soor, Satgope, 1st Assistant Supervisor of Ganja Cultivation, Naogaon, Rajshahi, says, 'The lowest classes of Hindus and Muhammadans, such as fishermen, Kaoras, Methers, Domes, Muchis, Chamars, Mallas, palki-bearers, etc., smoke ganja. It is also smoked by udasins,..songsters,... About 75 per cent. people of the above classes smoke ganja...' Rai Kamalapati Ghosal Bahadur, Brahmin, Pensioner, SubRegistrar and Zamindar, 24-Parganas, says, 'About one-fourth of the lower class of labouring men consisting chiefly of Bagdis, Karas, Chandals, coolies, &c., smoke ganja.' Surgeon-Major R. Cobb, Civil Surgeon and Superintendent, Lunatic Asylum, Dacca, says, 'The lower classes usually smoke ganja. The Dacca shop-keepers inform me that about 60 per cent. of their customers are low class Muhammadans, and 40 per cent.'  Rev. D. Morison, M.B., C.M., M.D., Medical Missionary, Rampur Boalia, says, 'The ganja-smokers are chiefly from the labouring classes, day-labourers, cartmen, bricklayers, carpenters, blacksmiths, fishermen, milkmen, raiyats, and devotees. I took a rough census of a neighbouring village within municipal bounds, and found 60 per cent. given to the smoking of ganja. They are mostly day-labourers, cartmen, and raiyats. This percentage is high, and would not be found so high in any village outside municipal bounds.' Mr. A. G. M. Wodschow, Assistant Manager, Indigo and Zamindari, Dumur Factory, Purnea, says, 'All men, mostly Hindus, and of the poorer class, and over 40 per cent.' Syed Riyaz Uddin Quazi, Pleader, Bogra, says, 'In the ganja tracts 75 per cent. of the people are more or less addicted to ganja-smoking. The lower and poorer classes of people, the sanyasis and the bairagis, use the drug more frequently.' Babu Pares Nath Chatterjee, Brahmin, Pleader, Satkhira, Khulna District, says, 'Fishermen (Jelias, Tiors, Bagdis, etc.), Kahars, Mehtars, Domes, Bunas (coolies)...are ganja-smokers. Nearly 60 per cent. of the above smoke ganja, but those who live near a zilla or sub-division,i .e.,i n a place where ganja is easily available, are proportionately greater smokers than those who live in the interior.' Babu Nobin Chandra Sarkar, Kayasth, Wholesale and retail vendor of ganja and bhang, Barisal, says, 'Low class Hindus and jogis and sanyasis and prostitutes smoke ganja...in this town about 50 per cent. of the aggregate population use ganja...' Babu Dhani Ram Saha, Excise Vendor, Mymensingh, says, 'Ganja is smoked generally by the lower classes of people. About half of their number smoke ganja.' District Board, Mymensingh (Sub-Committee), says, 'Seventy per cent. of the consumers come from among the low class of Hindus and Muhammadans.' Kamini Kumar Chandra, Kayastha, Bengali, Pleader, Silchar, says, 'Ganja is used generally by the lower order of Hindus; it is not used by the Muhammadans, excepting some rare cases. A large number (it is difficult to get correct figures, but may be roughly estimated to be over 60 per cent.) of the working classes use it, and sanyasis, ramayats and garden coolies, and also Hindu sepoys...Labouring classes, especially fishermen and boatmen..up-country coolies...prostitutes are the chief consumers.' Gangadhar Sormah, Brahmin, Pleader, Jorhat, says, 'Lower classes of people smoke ganja generally...' Revd. J. P. Jones, Missionary, Sylhet, says, 'Nearly 25 per cent. use ganja. Chiefly among the lower classes...Tea-garden coolies are either habitual or occasional moderate consumers. Where men work in large numbers together, they all become more or less consumers of ganja. Prostitutes generally take ganja. The habit of taking ganja is formed by associating with others that take it. On a large bungalow that we are building almost all the workmen take ganja, and they form the habit because one or two bring ganja with them and others join in smoking.' Laksmikanta Barkagati, Brahma, Secretary to the Tezpur Raiyats' Association, Tezpur, Darrang, says, 'Doms (Assamese fishermen) and Haries, garden coolies and up-country men specially are addicted to ganja. Doms and Haries might be 40 per cent., up-country men 60 per cent., and garden coolies 25 per cent.' Mr. H. V. Drake-Brockman, Officiating  Commissioner of Excise, Central Provinces, says, 'Non-agricultural day-labourers of all classes; Agricultural day-labourers who do not belong to the regular cultivating classes...Cultivators as a rule eschew ganja. It may be said that all males of class...one-half of the males over 19 years of age is not an extravagant estimate...' Ram Krishna Rao, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Bhandara, says, 'Gonds, 50 per cent,..' Mir Imad Ali, Honorary Magistrate, Damoh, says, 'It is used more moderately by labourers and low castes to ward off fatigue and cold. Twenty per cent. of the populace use ganja...Occasionals from the poor labouring classes and cultivators.' Seth Bachraj, Honorary Magistrate, Wardha, says, 'Among the lower castes, such as Kunbis, Bhamptis, Mahars, gosains, etc., and among Muhammadans I should think that 25 per cent. smoke it.' Modan Mohan Seth, Honorary Magistrate, Jubbulpore, says, 'Ganja and charas are smoked by fakirs and other persons. Amongst the...latter nearly 40 per cent. consume the drugs...' Rai Bahadur Seth Tika Ram, Brahmin, Money-lender and Malguzar, Narsinghpur, says, 'Twenty per cent. of the lower classes of people, and 5 per cent. of the middling classes of people may be said to smoke ganja in this district. .. Consumers of ganja among the lower classes of people are 20 per cent.' Thakur Maharaj Singh, Rai Bahadur, Malguzar, Saugor, says, 'sepoys, and day-labourers smoke ganja: 50 per cent. of...day-labourers of the lower classes smoke ganja...' Rao Venjat Rao, Brahmin, Malguzar, and Political Pensioner, Saugor, says, 'Ganja is universally smoked...by all classes of labourers of the lower castes. About...50 per cent. of the labouring classes smoke ganja...'  Mr.Tara Dass Banerji, President, District Council, Raipur, says, 'Of the...musicians it may be said that at least 50 per cent. of them indulge in it;..' Rao Sahib Rangrao Harry Khisty, Pleader, Bhandara, says, 'Gonds and Gowaries, 50 per cent...Powars and Lodhis, 75 per cent...Brahmins, Musalmans, Marwaris, Koshtees and Mahars, 25 per cent...' Mr. J. A. Maughan, Manager, Central Provinces Collieries, Umaria, Jubbulpore District, says, 'Fifty per cent. of lower classes smoke ganja and charas...Ganja- smoking is not confined to any class, though the majority of smokers are among the lower classes.' S. Vasudeva Rao, Tahsildar, Tadpatri, says, '...Madigas, mains and weavers generally use ganja. Fifty per cent. of the population smoke ganja.'  K. Rama Kristna Bramham, Brahmin, Stationary Sub-Magistrate, Kudlighi, Bellary District, says, 'Chiefly Boyas ; Lingayets...Threefourths of the males amongst Boyas are believed to have been addicted to it. Amongst Lingayets it can be said that one-fourth of the males have been so addicted.' Hospital Assistant Chinny Sreenivasa Rau, Prapanna Komity, L. F. Hospital, Bobbili Vizagapatam District, says, 'About 1/8th of the Brahmins, Telagas, and Kurakuli people, 9/10th of Muhammadans, and about 1/20th of Pariahs smoke the ganja in these parts, On the whole, there would be 10 per cent. of the total population...' S. P. Narasimmalu Nayadu, Editor of the " Crescent," Coimbatore, says, 'Rajputs and Musalmans are the principal classes who use gauja. Twenty per cent. of these classes are likely to use the drug.' Nalum Bhimarauz Vysyia, Merchant, Berhampore, Ganjam District, says, 'Ganja is practised by Telugu Brahmins and banians in proportion of 1/8 of the whole population, and almost all the lower class people...are in the habit of smoking it in places surrounding the Malias, such as Suradu, Bodagada, Ghumsoor, and the hills also. Generally poor people have recourse to it.' Kamalapuram Nagayya, Komati, Ganja Contractor, Adoni, says, 'About 76 per cent. of the population of Adoni town use this, and people in some villages of this taluk as well.' Nalum Bhimarauz Vysyia, Merchant, Berhampore, Ganjam District, says, 'More than one-third of the higher classes and the weaver classes and poor people in general drink bhang in towns situated in plains.' Bhalchandra Krishna Bhatavadekar, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Bombay, says, 'The lower classes of society, such as people depraved in habits, both of the Hindus and Muhammadan community, also smoke these drugs to about 10 to 15 per cent..'  G. S. Khaperde, Brahmin, Pleader, Amraoli, says, '...people working in the damp mostly smoke ganja. Nearly ninety per cent. of them smoke it...' 

I had estimated the number of persons belonging to the working and labouring classes in present day India's population of 1.4 billion as in the range of 600-700 million. Taking the lower limit of 600 million, and considering that possibly 60% of these people are adults above the age of 21, that would make today's adult population among the working classes as 360 million. If we considered that about 50% of these are males who predominantly smoke ganja and some women and youth above the age of 18, that would make about 100 million. If we take the average percentage of ganja smokers among this class as 50% from the evidence above, that would make 50 million ganja smokers today from this class if it had not been prohibited. If we take the most quoted percentage of 75% by witnesses to the Hemp Commission, the number of ganja smokers among the working classes, that would make 75 million or roughly 10% of the working classes in the country today who are habitual moderate ganja smokers.

The benefits of cannabis to the working and labouring classes

There is overwhelming evidence in the Hemp Commission's report showing that the working and labouring classes used cannabis, primarily as ganja, to alleviate fatigue from hard physical labour, to ward off diseases, and to protect themselves from exposure to the sun, cold, damp and other adverse working conditions. The Hemp Commission says, in its summary, that '470. The use of these drugs to give staying-power under severe exertion or exposure or to alleviate fatigue is very largely in evidence. Here it is ganja especially which is credited with these beneficial effects. For ganja is far more extensively used than bhang by the labouring classes...Gymnasts, wrestlers and musicians, palki-bearers and porters, divers and postal runners, are examples of the classes who use the hemp drugs on occasions of especially severe exertion. Fishermen and boatmen, singhara cultivators working in tanks, dhobis and night watchmen, mendicants and pilgrims, are named as among those who use them under severe exposure. All classes of labourers, especially such as blacksmiths, miners, and coolies, are said more or less generally to use the drugs as a rule in moderation to alleviate fatigue.'

The summary by the Hemp Commission on the reasons why the working and labouring classes smoked ganja is distilled from the large number of individual witness statements made before the Commission, in response to questions 10, 17, 20, 24, 27 posed by the Hemp Commission regarding the classes that consumed cannabis, and the reasons for it. Again, as in the case of the classes that smoked ganja, we see witness statements from the length and breadth of the country, showing that the use of cannabis, smoked as ganja, was a universal remedy to alleviate fatigue, ward off illnesses and work under adverse conditions. Ganja was the most effective and most affordable medicine for these people who belonged to the poorest classes but also had the intelligence to choose the best and most efficient medicine for their needs. The widespread usage shows that this had been tested and proven for possibly thousands of years across many generations of the working and labouring classes. Consumption by the working and labouring classes was always habitual moderate usage and never in excess. For one thing, they did not have the money to afford ganja for excessive usage. For another, they did not have the time to lounge around using ganja excessively. Mr. W. H. Grimley, Commissioner of Chota Nagpur, says 'They use ganja and bhang as a tonic or exhilarant. The moderate use of these drugs is considered beneficial, enabling the consumer to bear fatigue, withstand cold, and shake off mental anxieties.' Mr. J. C. Price, Magistrate and Collector, Rajshahi, says, 'They take a smoke of ganja as a sort of pick-me-up, to be relieved of the discomfort they are called upon to endure in the performance of their duties. These are mostly all habitual or occasional moderate consumers.' Mr. A. C. Tute, Magistrate and Collector of Dinajpur, says, 'The menials use them with a view to do hard work' Mr. L. Hare, Magistrate and Collector of Muzaffarpur, says, 'Among the low class, the cultivators and labourers generally use these drugs as stimulants'. Mr. G. E. Manisty, Magistrate and Collector of Saran, says, 'the labouring class to alleviate fatigue.' Mr. T. L. Jenkins, Magistrate and Collector of Dacca, says, 'The labouring classes generally resort to the smoking of ganja as a sedative after hard work— the hard labour they have to perform in the sun or water. The habit is also contracted by associating with the ganja smokers.' Mr. A. E. Harward, Offg. Magistrate and Collector, says, 'In the case of ganja, the habitual moderate consumers, and those who only occasionally exceed moderation, are mostly to be found among the labouring classes. They naturally feel a desire for some intoxicant after a day of hard work and exposure. Want of means, family ties, and regular occupation restrain them from habitual excess.' Colonel C. H. Garbett, Deputy Commissioner of Hazaribagh, says, 'Exposure in the rainy months to the inclemencies of the weather is generally the cause which make them resort to the practice.' Rai Nandakisore Das, Bahadur, District Officer of Angul, Cuttack, says, 'They use it after exposure or hard labour.' Mr. W. Maxwell, Sub-Divisional Officer, Jhenidah, District Jessore, says, 'Persons who work hard physically or lead a life of exposure are the principal consumers.' Babu Gopal Chunder Mookerjee, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Diamond Harbour, says, 'Generally as a relaxation after hard work and in the case of the labouring classes as a stimulant to hard work.' Babu Navin Krishna Banerji, Brahman, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Purulia, District Manbhum, says, 'Hard-working people smoke ganja to give them relief in their work and to protect them from the effects of the climate.' Babu Pran Kumar Das, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector and Personal Assistant to the Commissioner of Burdwan, says, 'Generally speaking, those whose pursuits cause much physical strain on them take ganja.' Babu Gobind Chandra Basak, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Brahmanbaria, Tippera District, says, 'The habitual consumers of ganja are those who do hard bodily labour and pursue detestable and noxious callings, such as Chamars and mehtars.' Babu Dina Nath De, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Nadia, says, 'Boatmen and coolies or day-labourers as well as some of the cultivators who till the soil under the hot sun take to ganja.' Babu Ganendra Nath Pal, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Naogaon, says, 'the circumstances of their living in society which indulge in smoking ganja and their doing very hard labour without proper food and rest lead to the practice. To this may be added the general hankering of men for some refreshment to kill the fatigue of hard labour. Examples are not wanting of people acquiring the habit of ganja smoking by first using it as medicine. For instance, a man suffering from chronic fever, dysentery, diarrhœa, gout, etc., is advised the smoking of ganja as a remedy.' Babu Ganganath Roy, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Chittagong, says, 'Fishermen, Haris following the profession of fishermen, coolies and palkibearers smoke ganja in order to bear up the fatigue and to protect themselves from the consequences of exposure to weather—mehtars and Haris following the profession of mehtars, to enable them to carry on the work of cleansing latrines and similar work without a feeling of repulsion.' Babu Jogendro Nath Bandyopadhya, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Jalpaiguri, says, 'They smoke the drug to shake off mental and physical depression caused by excess in labour and climatic influences.' Babu A. K. Ray, Sub-Divisional Magistrate, Bangaon, Jessore District, says, 'Fishermen have to pass the greater portion of their life in water and they want a stimulant. Ganja is the cheapest stimulant going. Coolies and palki-bearers seek a relief from fatigue in the ganja smoke. It gives them greater power of endurance...Nearly every chowkidar in the district of Tippera is a ganjasmoker. They say they cannot keep watch at night without it.' Babu Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, on deputation as 2nd Inspector of Excise, says, 'Habits of life, etc.—These are all poor people, and cannot pay for country spirit. It is used as a narcotic to relieve fatigue and exposure to damp climate, sun, rain and fire, as a preventive against rheumatism, fever, etc., on account of religious prejudice against country spirit (as Muhammadans)...Rheumatic patients, lepers, and ashmatic patients smoke to alleviate pain and deaden the sensation. People suffering from colic, asthma, and other painful diseases, venereal diseases, etc. Habits, etc.—For intoxicating purpose...Moderate habitual cosumers sometimes become excessive consumers for drowning sorrow, etc., to allay pain as from leprosy, venereal diseases, etc.' Babu Rajani Prasad Neogy, Excise Deputy Collector, Mymensingh, says, 'All the classes enumerated under this head live by manual labour; moderate consumption of ganja enables them to sustain labour without fatigue.' Babu Suresh Chundra Bal, Baidya, Special Excise Deputy Collector, Howrah. says, 'Low class musicians sometimes use ganja, as ganja is said to improve their voice...The...manual labourers and the agriculturists...find the use of these drugs as refreshing, and capable of removing the bodily pains. The use of the drugs with such people is generally hereditary.' Babu Roy Brahma Dutt, Kayasth, Excise Deputy Collector, Darbhanga, says, 'The first two because they require some sort of stimulant, but cannot drink spirit or tari which they consider from their religious notion as forbidden drinks...The fourth using the drug as medicine. The fifth, labouring classes, for alleviating their fatigue.' Babu Banku Behari Dutt, Excise Deputy Collector, Backergunge, says, 'They are generally taken from the class of labourers who after their hard and irregular labour and exposure find some laxity in administering this drug (ganja), and gradually it becomes a part and parcel of their existence.' Babu Hem Chunder Kerr, Kayasth, Retired Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Sub-Registrar of Sealdah, says, 'The people who take the hemp drugs generally belong to the classes who have to earn their bread after a considerable manual labour. The drugs are used by such people as food accessory, refreshing, stimulant, or occasionally for intoxication.' Babu Kali Das Mukerji, Sub-Deputy Collector and Superintendent of Distillery, Serampore, Hughli, says, 'Ganja is used by labourers as a refreshing stimulant...It is used by the travellers...as a safeguard against disease in malarious tracts...It is successfully used by some persons as a precaution against costiveness and commencing acidity.' Babu Digendra Nath Pal, Kayasth, Deputy Inspector of Excise, 24-Parganas, says, 'Hardship and a life of asceticism are the principal causes which lead to practice.' Babu Sir Chunder Soor, Satgope, 1st Assistant Supervisor of Ganja Cultivation, Naogaon, Rajshahi, says, 'The keeping of company with ganja smokers, a desire to increase lust in youth, an attempt to kill the hard labour of the day, and to ward off exposure, or the use of it as medicine, leads one to the practice of ganja-smoking.' Mr. F. H. Tucker, District Superintendent of Police, Dinajpur, says, 'Fishermen and boatmen, etc., who are generally exposed to the inclemency of the weather, take to ganja.' Mr. R. L. Ward, District Superintendent of Police, Rajshahi, says, 'Ganja is generally smoked by the lower classes of people of Eastern Bengal—that is, that part of Bengal which is for the greater part of the year under water and damp...The fishermen and the cultivators are led to the practice for preventing rheumatism from cold and damp...The labouring class is habituated to ganja for the purpose of avoiding exhaustion from fatigue.' Mr. W. R. Ricketts, Manager, Nilgiri State, Tributary Mahals, Orissa, says, 'after an unusually hard day's work.' Babu Jadub Chandra Chuckerbutty, Brahmin, Civil and Sessions Judge, Kuch Behar, says, 'The ganja is used by people of active habits and of poor circumstances.' Banu Girinda Mohan Chuckerbutty, Brahmin, Munsiff, Comilla (Tippera), says, 'Those who are accustomed to hard manual labour.' Rai Kamalapati Ghosal Bahadur, Brahmin, Pensioner, SubRegistrar and Zamindar, 24-Parganas, says, 'As stated above, most of the ganja smokers are of the lower labouring class of men. They labour on land as well as in water and find relief after such work.' Surgeon-Lietenant-Colonel A. Crombie, M.D., SurgeonSuperintendent, General Hospital, Calcutta, says, 'The boatmen have very long hours. They work in the sun and rain from 6 A.M. to 8 P.M., snatching one meal at 11 A.M. They believe that ganja-smoking gives them the necessary endurance.' Rai Bahadur Kanny Loll Dey, C.I.E., late Chemical Examiner to the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, says, '..because it enables its votaries to undergo exposure or great manual labour at a minimum cost of tissue.' Assistant Surgeon Norendra Nath Gupta, Baidya, in Civil Medical charge, Rangpur, says, 'Ganja is generally used by the low classes of people who are subject to excessive labour and exposure.' Assistant Surgeon Chooney Lall Dass, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence and Therapeutics, Medical School, Dacca, says '...whose occupations necessitate them to exposure to the influences of the weather and to hard manual labour are more addicted to the habit of ganja-smoking than people in other occupations of life...' Assistant Surgeon Devendranath Roy, Brahmin, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence, Campbell Medical School, Calcutta, says, 'They contract the habit on account of the severe physical labour they have to undergo to earn their livelihood as coolies, syces, domestic servants, field labourers, etc. Hemp drugs, being cheaper than country wine, are preferred. Tradition may have something to do with some people.' Assistant Surgeon Soorjee Narain Singh, Kayasth, Bankipur, says 'Native soldiers, police constables, and darwans use it to enable them to endure hard work and excite in them a spirit of bravery and cheerfulness...Besides these men, low caste people of Bengal and Behar (especially of the latter) and the beggars use it moderately as a necessity of life, such as to ward off effects of damp, allay thirst and hunger, endure fatigue, etc.' Assistant Surgeon Hari Mohan Sen, Baidya, Chittagong, says, 'They take to the use of the drug for they forget their miseries while under its influence.' Babu Durga Dass Lahiri, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Rangpur, says, 'Ganja is generally used by the low classes of people, who are subject to excessive toils and exposure.' Prasad Das Mallik, Subarnabanik, Medical Practitioner, Hughli, says 'The habit is confined chiefly to the lower classes, who have to undergo hard work and toil and are exposed to all sorts of weather.' Nimai Charan Das, Vaidya, Medical Practitioner, Chittagong, says, 'Ganja is generally taken by the labouring classes to bear up fatigue.'  Bijoya Ratna Sen, Kaviranjan, Kabiraj, Calcutta, says, 'Lower classes, such as fishermen, cultivators and day labourers (4 to 1). It is prevalent in dampy and marshy soils...In Behar, i.e., Upper Bengal, 50 per cent. of both higher and lower classes are in the habit of taking bhang, but in Lower Bengal it is not used to such an extent, rather much less. Ganja and charas are generally taken by lower and labouring classes, but certain people of the higher and gentle classes, being mixed with bad company and following all immoral habits, are also found to use them. These are not, however, generally taken by the gentle class.' Bijoya Ratna Sen, Kaviranjan, Kabiraj, Calcutta, says, 'It is prevalent in dampy and marshy soils.' Raja Peary Mohun Mukerji, C.S.I., Zamindar, Uttarpara, Hughli, says 'people following occupations involving hard manual labour or exposure to inclemencies of the weather, are more given to smoking ganja than people in other occupations of life.' Maharaja Girijanath Roy Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'Ganja is consumed mainly by the labouring classes to ward off the effects of exposure in inclement weather and to endure the hardships of toil in the cultivating season...' Raja Ranajit Singh, Vaisya, Zamindar, Nashipur, District Murshidabad, says, 'The drug is in moderate quantities used by sanyasis, up-country people, and the labouring classes, especially in the agricultural and swampy districts of Bengal.' Rai Radha Govinda Rai, Sahib Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'The reason which leads the menials, day labourers, etc., to use it is that they can do hard work.' Rai Bahadur Radha Ballav Chowdhuri, Baidya, Honorary Magistrate and Zamindar, Sherpur Town, Mymensingh District, says, 'They use it generally as a recreation after finishing their day's work.' Babu Raghunandan Prasad Sinha, Brahman, Zamindar, District Muzaffarpur, says, 'Wrestlers, travellers, and others who have to do bodily labour specially betake themselves to bhang consumption.' Babu Surendra Nath Pal Chowdhury, Zamindar, Ranaghat, District Nadia, says, 'The labouring classes, such as boatmen, fishermen, coolies, etc., having to be exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, generally resort to the use of ganja, although moderately.' Babu Radhika Churn Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar, Berhampur, says, 'It is supposed to have the power to sustain labour.' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'As a rule all those who use these two drugs to overcome fatigue, to avoid the evil effects of exposure, and as a stimulant after a hard day's work are habitual moderate consumers.' Babu Nundo Lal Gossain, Brahmin, Zamindar, Serampore, says, '...people whose occupations involve hard bodily labour or exposure to inclemencies of the weather are generally addicted to smoking ganja, and in a very small percentage of cases charas.' Babu Kalikisto Sarkar, Kayasth, Talukdar, Kasundi, Jessore, says, 'hard labour and keeping company with habitual smokers mainly lead to the practices.' Babu Jagat Kishor Acharjea Chaudhuri, Brahmin, Zamindar, Muktagacha, District Mymensingh, says, 'It is generally believed that more than half of the labouring section of the community and artizans mostly smoke ganja as a refreshment, either to stimulate them to the hard work they undergo in sun and rain or to drown their wearied limbs to repose. And now-a-days ganja-smoking has become almost general among those classes of people without any distinction of locality...From the proportion stated above, it will be seen that the labouring classes and artizans mostly take up to consume ganja.' Babu Jogendra Kishore Rai Chaudhuri, Zamindar, Ramgopalpur, District Mymensingh, says, 'As for ganja, I think it may be safely asserted that it is mainly used for the purpose of undergoing hard labour, toil, and fatigue.' Mr. A. G. M. Wodschow, Assistant Manager, Indigo and Zamindari, Dumur Factory, Purnea, says, 'Ganja.—By hermits, travellers, and the poorer class of workmen, who say it is a relief after work and keeps hunger away.' Babu Sasi Bhusan Roy, Manager, Dubalhati Raj Estate, Rajshahi District, says, 'The habitual moderate smokers resort to this drug in order to remove their fatigue and to refresh themselves after the hard work of the day...Mere satisfaction of fancies, I believe, leads the smokers of the two other classes [musicians and debauchees] to indulge in hemp-smoking.' Babu Aghore Nath Banerji, Vice-Chairman, Serampore Municipality, District Hughli, says, 'Ganja.—(a) Daily working habits and espepecially working under the sun or cold make the up-country people and lower classes of natives of Bengal smoke ganja and charas habitually and moderately.' Babu Sasadhar Roy, Brahmin, Pleader and Honorary Magistrate, Rajshahi, says, 'Hard workers of the classes mentioned in answer 20 take to ganja to relieve fatigue.' Babu Beprodas Banerjee, Brahman, Pleader, Newspaper Editor, and Chairman, Baraset Municipality, says, 'Generally poor people undergoing hard labour. This is their only stimulant.' Babu Kailas Chandra Dutta, Baidya, Vakil, Judge's Court, Comilla, Tippera District, says, 'Boatmen, fishermen, men of the bearer class and hewers of wood use ganja as a stimulant for doing work. Songsters use ganja to keep their voice clear and to prevent its being hoarse.' Babu Mohini Mohan Burdhan, Kayasth, District Government Pleader of Tippera, says, 'As already adverted to above most of these men come from the lower orders of society forming the bulk of the artizan and the labouring classes who depend chiefly on manual labour for their subsistence; struggle for life being very hard with them they resort to ganja at first as occasional indulgences only to rid themselves of the fatigue to which they are constantly subject in earning their bread. But in course of time when the habit grows it becomes difficult to shake it off, and then they have to take it as sheer necessity.' Babu Amvika Charan Mazumdar, Vaidya, Pleader and Zamindar, Faridpur, says, 'Labouring people living in poverty and suffering from depression of spirits are generally led to the use of ganja, first as a stimulant and afterwards as an intoxicant. Persons suffering from rheumatic pains also sometimes take to it as a pain-curer. These people are generally of dirty habits of life.' Rai Bahadur Raj Kumar Sarvadhikari, Secretary, British Indian Association, Calcutta, says, 'people following occupation involving hard manual labour or exposure to inclemencies of the weather are more given to smoking ganja than people in other occupations of life...' Babu Akshay Kumar Maitra, Secretary, Rajshahi Association, Pleader, Judge's Court, Member, Rajshahi District Board, Commissioner, Rampur Boalia Municipality, says, 'Those who have to undergo fatigues and hard labour are induced by others to get into the habit of smoking ganja as a preventive or relaxation; while in the case of confirmed smokers, evil pursuits and evil company greatly contribute towards the formation of this habit. An honest, hard-working cultivator is seldom found addicted to ganja.' Babu Kamala Kanta Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar and Pleader, President of the Chittagong Association, says, 'Fishermen to protect themselves from exposure from cold, and sweepers to protect themselves from bad smells, etc.' Babu Nitya Nanda Roy, Teli, Merchant and Zamindar, Chittagong, says, 'For excitement and intoxicating purpose low classes of people, particularly those that are living on piscatory profession and the coolies going in the hills, are addicted to smoke ganja under a notion that the use of it gives energy to work and also alleviates pain of hard work.' Babu Prosad Dass Dutt, Zamindar, Calcutta, says, 'generally the lower class of people of India who have to undergo hard and arduous work and expose themselves to the weather, use it in moderation.' Babu Mahendra Nath Roy, of Santa, Jessore, says, 'It is the lowest class who generally begets the habit of smoking, such as the palki-bearers, carpenters, and common labourers who, after the day's labour, take it for refreshment.' District Board, 24-Parganas (Sub-Committee), says, 'Ganja is chiefly smoked by those classes whose vocations expose them to the inclemencies of the weather, e.g., fishermen, sea-faring men along the coast, artizans, syces, coachmen, darwans, palki-bearers as well as mendicants, generally with good effect.' District Board, Patna, says, 'People who live in damp climate and who are exposed to inclement weather use ganja moderately...The day labourer and lower orders of people find a relief after a whole day's manual labour..People living in damp places, or where cold is excessive, take it for health.' Krishna Chandra Sanyal, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Sylhet, says, 'They take to them on account of the damp and cold they are subject to. Each of the drugs, specially ganja smoking, has staying power...Higher, middle, and lower classes on bereavement, in festivities, and as an anodyne to kill pains.' Masdar Ali, Pleader, Sylhet, says, 'Hard work, exposures, etc.' Bishun Chandra Chattopadhay, Pleader, Dhubri, says, 'The habitual ganja-smokers are those who are exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, and more especially who have to work in water, such as fishermen and boatmen.'  Gangadhar Sormah, Brahmin, Pleader, Jorhat, says, 'Habitual moderate consumers are mainly taken from the lower classes of the people who work hard and who have to undergo the inclemencies of the weather...' Haribilash Agarwala, Merchant, Tezpur, says, 'It is used mainly by the lower class people for facilitating protection from cold; not used for luxury.' Jadu Ram Barooah, Assamese Kayasth, Local Board Member; Pensioned Overseer, Public Works Department, Dibrugarh, says, 'The labourer and songster classes to stimulate them to work...' Colonel M. M. Bowie, Commissioner, Nerbudda Division, says, 'The ordinary cultivating classes are also often habitual consumers, but among all these classes there are often men who only smoke ganja occasionally, i.e., when they have had a hard day's work.' Mr. F. C. Anderson, Officiating Commissioner, Nagpur, says, 'A man of this class generally confines himself to one pipe after his evening meal as a solace.' Mr. H. V. Drake-Brockman, Officiating  Commissioner of Excise, Central Provinces, says, 'those who have to support themselves by daily labour involving great physical exertion;' Bhargow Laxmon Gadgit, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Nagpur, says, 'There is an impression that smoke of a chilam will take away the fatigue, and they generally smoke ganja to take away the fatigue.' Ram Krishna Rao, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Bhandara, says, 'Lowest classes, who are exposed to weather and undergo works of hard labour.' Batuk Bharty, Superintendent of Kalahandi State, says, 'The labourers, after the day's work, find some relief in smoking ganja. The Nalia Paiks are of lazy habits, which lead them to smoke ganja. The Katki people, who carry on trade and go from place to place, smoke ganja to avoid the effects of the climate.' Munshi Thakht Singh, pensioned Tahsildar, Bata, District Damoh, says, 'It is true that no labourers abstain from ganja, and that they work well upon it. This is true of the tahsils in Saugor, Damoh and Jabalpur in which I have served...It gives a man an interest in his work, and enables him to work harder and longer. The effect of a chilam lasts for four or six hours. Hard manual labour chiefly leads to the practice.' Vinayak Balkrishna Khare, Brahmin, Excise Daroga, Nagpur, says, 'after taking a small quantity of drug, a labourer can work indefatigably or carry load without requiring much food. So the drug like alcohol becomes a highly concentrated food. Their small earnings necessitate them to resort to this practice, which enables them to observe economy and to possess sufficient energy to work.' Apothecary J. Prentie, Civil Surgeon, Bhandara, says, 'Ganja—Religious mendicants, labourers, and the lowest classes, who are exposed to weather and undergo great hardships and prolonged toil at certain seasons.' Mir Zamin Ali, Pensioned Hospital Assistant, Jabalpur, says, 'The labourers are led to the practice of consuming ganja, because in its intoxication they find some relief from fatigue, and under its influence they can withstand hard labour.'  Mir Imad Ali, Honorary Magistrate, Damoh, says, 'It is used more moderately by labourers and low castes to ward off fatigue and cold. Twenty per cent. of the populace use ganja...' Seth Bachraj, Honorary Magistrate, Wardha, says, 'The lower castes use it because they are obliged to labour, and it prevents them tiring.' Hari Har Singh, Zamindar and Honorary Magistrate, Sambalpur District, says, 'Some say that the intoxication from ganja has the effect of concentrating the mind, i.e., the mind takes the same direction as the persons using it wishes. I therefore think that...the men of business use it with the object of performing a large amount of their ordinary duties.' Diwan Prem Singh, Zamindar, Bilaspur District, says, 'labourers who have to undergo severe labour'. Thakur Maharaj Singh, Rai Bahadur, Malguzar, Saugor, says, 'The more respectable classes use bhang; the labouring classes use ganja. These classes live from hand to mouth. They smoke ganja, when tired and to enable them to undergo fatigue.' Rao Venjat Rao, Brahmin, Malguzar, and Political Pensioner, Saugor, says, 'Labourers smoke it as a relief from the fatigue of labour.' Mr.Tara Dass Banerji, President, District Council, Raipur, says, 'I believe the custom varies directly with the swampiness of the locality. The drier the climate the less the amount of the indulgence...In Bengal almost every man amongst the lower classes would not let the chillum go untouched if he can get it ready and free of cost, especially when he is about to do anything fatiguing or has caught a cold...Men who from the nature of their work are exposed to the inclemencies of the weather, like the boatmen, the fishermen and the postal runners, take to it to mitigate the effects of exposure and of fatigue. Syces, mahants and clubmen and paiks take to it as they have very little to do and much time in their hands which they do not know how to dispose of. Petty shopkeepers in villages take to it as they have to wait in their shops the whole day and part of the night for custom which is not always very brisk. The intervening gap is well filled by a smoke which makes the time pass less heavily. I believe that irregular work, a life of exposure to wet and cold, fatiguing work and habits of idleness, and violent and lawless pursuits lead to a man's becoming a ganja smoker.' Babu Kalidas Chowdhry, Brahmin, Pleader, Hoshangabad, says, 'The former resort to the use of ganja because they can go through the physical labour, on which they depend for their livelihood, with more cheerfulness'. Rao Sahib Rangrao Harry Khisty, Pleader, Bhandara, says, 'Goads, Gowaries, Telees, Mahars and other labouring classes, as cheap intoxicating smoke, as a staying power for severe exertion or exposure, or to alleviate fatigue...Powars and Lodhis partly for the above reason and partly because it is not considered disgraceful as opium or liquor.' Mr. J. A. Maughan, Manager, Central Provinces Collieries, Umaria, Jubbulpore District, says, 'The lower classes mostly, as it is supposed to make a person insensible to hard labour and fatigue.' Girdhari Lal, Oswal Bania, Merchant and Banker, Seoni-Chaparam says, 'The hard work and the exposure lead them to refresh themselves with three or four whiffs of ganja a day. Under its influence they do not feel either the sun or fatigue. After a smoke of ganja, the smoker ceases to be thirsty or tired.' Onkar Das, Agarwalla Bania, Mahajan, Seoni-Chapara, says, 'Class (a) includes chiefly hard-worked labourers, who take an occasional whiff of ganja, three or four times a day, to relieve their weariness, or just as they lie down at nights to set them asleep and assist digestion.' Husen Khan, Pathan, Abkari Contractor, Seoni-Chapara, says, 'Those who have to work hard in the open air are the people who require and take ganja ; it removes their fatigue and fortifies them to resist wet and cold, and even heat.' Babu Muna Lall, Ex-Contractor of Ganja, Jabalpur, says, 'Coolies use it because they work better on it'.  Mr. C. H. Mounsey, Acting Collector of Cuddapah, says, 'People whe have much work in water and those who work in feverish places are said to take it to relieve pain.' Mr. L. C. Miller, Acting Collector of Trichinopoly, says, 'Among occasional consumers it is said to be consumed by day labourers and toddy drawers to relieve them of pain after their labour and induce sleep. It is first commenced as a medicine, and its use gradually becomes habitual.' Mr. H. Campbell, Acting Sub-Collector, Guntoor, says, 'Athletes are said to use bhang to serve as a stimulant while they are engaged in wrestling and other exercises.' Mr. E. L. Vaughan, Acting Sub-Collector, Dindigul, says, 'they want something strong after their daily labours; and as the prices of alcoholic drinks are becoming prohibitive, the poorer classes take lahiam.' Mr. F. Levy, Acting Deputy Commissioner, Salt and Abkari, Southern Division, says, 'The practice is resorted to, to mitigate the feeling of exhaustion.' M. R. R. Dewan Bahadur S. Venkata Ramadas Naidu, Deputy Collector, Godavari, says, 'These people contract the habit on the advice of native doctors and by association with bairagis and other ascetics....These people acquire the habit by bad society and on account of occasional indulgence, as in the case of Bondilis, as a religious drink. People that have a sickly constitution and that can ill afford to get proper medical advice and that have bad society, get into these practices.' M. Azizuddeen, Sahib Bahadur, Deputy Collector, North Arcot, says, 'to prevent the evil effects of water, to keep the body warm, and to endure hunger. They say by smoking ganja they don't feel the effects of appetite, and that it increases manhood.' K. Narayana Iyer, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Gooty, says, 'hard-working cooly classes take it to alleviate the fatigue they feel. Idleness also begets the practice.' M. R. Ry. P. Veeraswami Naidu, Deputy Collector, Masulipatam, says, 'People that suffer from spleen or dropsy use it as a remedy and get themselves accustomed to it.' P. S. Singaravelu Pillai, Tahsildar of Erode, says, 'These have to bear fatigue and go without food for a day or two at times.' R. C. Rama Iyengor, Brahmin, Village Magistrate, Berangy, Mudanapulee Taluk, Cuddapah District, says, 'In places where there is much cold.' K. Narainaswamy Naidu, Velama, Huzoor Sheristadar, Masulipatam, says, 'Wandering tribes take it with the hope that it checks malarious poison.' T. M. Cheriyan, Manantoddy, says, 'In some cases of diseases it is used, and thus the practice is acquired. In others it is taken merely for its intoxicating effect.' Apothecary Muhammad Asadulla, Ellore, Godavary District, says, 'Musalmans chiefly, and bairagis or hermits, and native soldiers for keeping off malaria...This habit is met with equally among vegeterians and flesh-eaters, and among people of itinerant habits such as hermits and soldiers (native) who undergo hardships incidental to frequent changes of climate of the worst type possible.'  Hospital Assistant Jagannath Pandit, Uriya, Russellkonda, Ganjam District, says, 'the secondary objects are in order— aphrodisiac, invigoration of digestive powers, prevention of malaria, and society. The chief objects of taking bhang are to cool and strengthen the system (as used by bairagis, gymnasts), to invigorate the digestive powers, to strengthen the nervine powers, and to follow the track of society.' K. Subbarayadu Puntalu, Brahmin, Chairman of the Adoni Municipal Council, Bellary District, says, 'In the midst of their labour, the working people now and then use it to find relief and get over fatigue.' E. Subramana Iyer, Brahmin, Chairman, Municipal Council, Conjevaram, Chingleput District, says, 'People make use of it more on account of its deadening effects on bodily ailments. It deprives them of the feelings of pain, keeps their spirits up while they are in a languid state.'  Rev. John S. Chandler, Missionary Madura, says, 'Others take it because of their poverty and exposure. But all take it more or less for intoxication.' Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, 'That the water of strange wells conduces to fever and sickness in the user is a widespread belief amongst the people. To counteract the supposed ill effects of this water, travellers or newly arrived residents in a place who may suffer from ill health resort to all sorts of reputed cures. Amongst these stands ganja. Soldiers, police, and men whose habits are more or less nomadic use ganja to a more marked extent than other classes of the people, and for the reason stated above...Then ganja has a reputation amongst its devotees of curing coughs, asthma, etc. A few are induced to adopt the habit by this consideration.' Hon'ble A. Sabapathy Moodelliar, Rai Bahadur, Merchant, Bellary, says, 'Ganja is generally smoked by workmen, poor people who require intoxication...they are workmen, doing coolie work; thirdly...Class use it as a recreation and to enjoy sound sleep during nights.' Angappa Gonuden, Blacksmith, Salem, says, 'It is the muscular exhaustion and pain caused by hard and incessant labour that leads people to this sort of intoxication.' Baldevdas, Brahmin, Priest of Hanuman Math, Rajahmundry, says, 'People of colder climes use it more freely and to a greater extent.' Mr. E. J. Ebden, Collector, Ahmednagar, says, 'Some, the  most habitual user, said they sought intoxication ; others wanted it for the relief of pain in joint, stomach, head, etc. ; others sought relief from fatigue or strength to labour...And in the majority (80 per cent.) of cases the purchase did not exceed one pice worth, which is a clear indication that the drug is a poor man's luxury.' Mr. F. S. P. Lely, Collector of Surat, says, 'Artizans and others believe that their usual drink of bhang water sharpens their faculties and enables them to work better. Lastly, many resort to ganja smoking as a cure for rheumatism, indigestion, and certain other chronic diseases, and also to allay mental depression.' Khan Bahadur Dadabhai Deenshah, Parsi, Huzur Deputy Collector and Magistrate, 1st Class, Kaira, says, 'Those belonging to the higher classes of Hindus as well as Musalmans do not smoke openly, and do not admit that they are addicted to it.' Rao Bahadur Ramchandra Rajaram Mule, Deshastha Brahmin, Administrator of Jath, in Southern Mahratta Country, says, 'Habitual moderate consumers are from the working classes who use ganja as a stimulant.' Rao Bahadur Bhaskar Rao Ramchandra Heblikar, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Sholapur, says, 'Those who work generally use the drug on account of its cheapness and as a stimulant after fatigue. They are generally poor.' Rao Bahadur Sitaram Damodar, Huzur Deputy Collector, Khandesh, says, 'it is regarded as a stimulant.' Khan Bahadur Ratanji Erdalji Kanga, Parsi, Deputy Collector and Magistrate, Dharwar, says, 'Manual labourers make use of ganja to alleviate their fatigue, and this resort to ganja for the sake of rest grows upon them into a regular habit...' Rao Bahadur Rango Ramchandra Bhardi, Deputy Collector and Native Assistant to the Commissioner, Poona, Central Division, says, 'Some acquire the habit by using the drugs on account of their medicinal qualities...People of the working class and musical performers acquire the habit by using the drugs as stimulants alleviating their fatigue.' Rao Saheb Pandurand Thakar, Deshastha Brahmin, Mamlatdar, Pandharpur, Sholapur District, at present auditing the jamabandi accounts of the Poona  District, Poona, says, 'Ganja is also smoked by artizans and men of handicraft...who are required to work hard and continuously for a long time during day and night.' Rao Saheb Shesho Krisna Mudkavi, Mamlatdar of Taluka Bijapur, Bijapur, says, 'The class uses this drug to alleviate fatigue in such moderate quantity as to cause no obstacle to their daily avocations.'  Balkrishna Narayan Vaidya, Parbhu, State Karbhari of Sangli, says, 'Men of small means, who have to work hard for their maintenance, generally take to the habit of ganja smoking.' Dadhabhai Burjorjee Guzder, Parsi, District Abkari In spector, Ahmednagar, says, 'The reason why the labourers use any of these drugs is that they forget for a while their fatigues...' Yashvanth Nilkanth, Patana Prabhu, Superintendent, Office of Survey Commissioner, and Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Bombay, says, 'Sometimes people contract these habits by using them first as remedies for certain bodily ailments; but among the generality of smokers and drinkers the habit is the result of association.'  Mr. Purbhuram Jeewanram, Nagar Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Bombay, says, 'In the hot weather in hot climates all classes drink bhang.' Rao Bahadur Vishwanath Keshawa Joglekar, Brahmin, Sowkar, Karajgi in Dharwar District, says, 'Time habits of life or circumstances which mainly generate this vice, are...a life used to a kind of labour which at the close of the day requires some stimulant to bring about relief to lighten the effects of the day’s toil and to bring about a pleasurable forgetfulness.' Gurappa Rachappa, Lengayet, Office of Shetti (Revenue and Police), Dharwar, says, 'The sick, who find relief from the suffer of their sickness in the use of the drugs.' Rahmatala Khan, Police Inspector, Shikarpur, says, 'Owners of riding animals, both Hindus and Musalmans, and big men, drink it in order to have relief at night.'  Krishnarao Hari, Officiating Extra Assistant Commissioner, Buldana, says, 'The Pardeshis are generally the immigrants from Upper India, who have come to Berar for their livelihood. Their principal object is to earn money to be enjoyed by them after their return to their homes. They often try to live within as small an amount as possible, eating their meals once in twenty-four hours, In order to avoid the feeling of such privations they resort to the habit of bhang eating.' G. S. Khaperde, Brahmin, Pleader, Amraoli, says, 'people working in the damp mostly smoke ganja. Nearly ninety per cent. of them smoke it...They generally drink [Bhang] in the evening outside the town in some garden or other place where water is fresh and abundant. They drink it after all the day's work is over... These are all generally good and law-abiding people. Some of them are respectable. Working in damp, exposure, forced abstinence, lead to the use of the drug.' Mr. A. Boppanna, Planter, Bepunaad, Green Hills, Coorg, says, 'people working in the cardamom jungle, and some coolies working in the coffee estates, and wild tribes, as a rule, take to ganja smoking.'

In response to questions 40 and 41 by the Hemp Commission, on the medical uses of cannabis in 19th century India, we again see witnesses citing the reasons for the use of cannabis by the working classes as mainly for relieving fatigue after strenuous work and exposure to harsh weather. Mr. F. H. Barrow, Magistrate and Collector of Bankura, says, 'It does, specially to those who have got to do continued hard physical work. It also alleviates fatigue after a long journey, as it is evident in the cases of palki-bearers, fakirs, who perform not only long journeys, but also expose themselves to the trying vicissitudes of weather.' Mr. N. K. Bose, Officiating Magistrate and Collector of Noakhali, says, 'Ganja is known to give a certain amount of staying power under severe exertion and to alleviate fatigue.' Mr. A. E. Harward, Offg. Magistrate and Collector, Bogra, says, 'Ganja undoubtedly has the effect of alleviating fatigue. Bhang also has, I believe, the same effect; they are both reputed to give staying power under severe exertion. It is a fact that a large proportion of ganja smokers are found among those classes of labourers (such as palki-bearers) whose work involves severe exertion, and these men often display remarkable staying power, but whether the ganja gives them the staying power I cannot say. Such men are generally habitual moderate consumers.' Colonel C. H. Garbett, Deputy Commissioner of Hazaribagh, says, 'Cultivators in marshy tracts use it... Postal runners and other people who have constantly to go long distances use it.' Babu Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, on deputation as 2nd Inspector of Excise, Bengal, says, 'labouring classes whose occupation compels them to work in the sun, water, rain, or before strong fire...Cultivators, fishermen, etc., who work in malarial and unhealthy damp watery places...I have seen boatmen and others who smoke ganja and bhadralok who drink bhang habitually can endure any amount of fatigue and exposure, can eat food with good appetite, can sleep soundly, and work hard and cheerfully. They also keep good health. Many people who had suffered from dyspepsia have been cured of the disease by the moderate and habitual use of bhang.' Surgeon-Lietenant-Colonel G. Price, Civil Surgeon, Burdwan, says, 'The smoking of ganja does give staying power under severe exertion. Babu Lolit Mohun Rai tells me of a chaprassi of his, who, after a couple of pipes of ganja, can run the whole distance between Burdwan and Chogdighee (twenty-five miles) in an unusually short time.' Kedareswar Acharjya, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Rampur Boalia, says, 'Moderate use of ganja or bhang doubtless gives a staying-power in works of extraordinary physical exertion, such as those of palki-bearers and blacksmiths. These two classes of people, as a rule, smoke ganja, and evidently they derive some help in carrying on their trade.' Mohes Chunder Ghose, G.M.C.B., Kayasth, Medical Practitioner, Ramnagar, 24-Parganas, says, 'Charas and ganja smoking has the effect of renovating the system after great bodily exertion and fatigue, and is in use by the labouring classes before or after a day's laborious work...Charas and ganja smoked in moderation are not baneful. They give tone to the wearied muscular system, and enable the poor labouring classes to withstand privations with greater alacrity than they otherwise would do.' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'Dhobies, boatmen, and fishermen, who have constantly to be out in all sorts of weather, and to be always coming in contact with water, attribute to the use of ganja their escape from the evil effects of the exposure. As an alleviation of fatigue I have seen palki-bearers tramp for ten miles with their unsightly machine and its occupants in the hottest sun, and at a brief break perspire like horses and look utterly exhausted, but after a chillum or two of ganja had been passed round they would tramp for another ten miles like a relay of fresh animals.' Babu Beprodas Banerjee, Brahman, Pleader, Newspaper Editor, and Chairman, Baraset Municipality, says, 'Mr. Forbes Mitchell in his Reminiscences of the Mutiny, speaks in raptures of a pill of opium after a terrible march in summer. The effect of opium is slow. But ganja or a cup of bhang works wonders on the sons of toil. A man works the more if he can have a smoke whilst working. The staying-power is great. Alcohol makes man lose control over his muscles; but opium, ganja, and bhang have a contrary effect.' Mr. J. J. S. Driberg, Commissioner of Excise and Inspector General of Police and Jails, says, 'Yes, decidedly so. It helps a man to travel long distances without food. I had a syce who went 60 miles in 18 consecutive hours merely smoking ganja and was quite fit the next day.' Mr. B. Robertson, Deputy Commissioner, Nimar, says, 'it gives staying-power, and is useful as a febrifuge. Some of the railway hamals told me that they nearly all smoked ganja to help them to carry heavy burdens and undergo fatigue.' Chaudhry Umrao Singh, Honorary Magistrate, Jubbulpore, says, 'I think the consumption of ganja in small quantities is beneficial. I used to take contracts on a large scale, and I know that the coolies after a long day's work used to derive benefit from their chillum of ganja at night. Out of my coolies I estimate that 90 per cent. smoked ganja.' Onkar Das, Agarwalla Bania, Mahajan, Seoni-Chapara, says, 'Ganja also does certainly give staying-power under severe exertion or exposure. A ganja smoker, for instance, could walk straight on and for a longer distance than a non-smoker. This is why the labouring classes so generally smoke ganja...The habitual moderate consumers of ganja among the labouring classes and jungle tribes certainly benefit from ganja smoking. ...I do consider that the smoking of ganja is positively beneficial to the poor, who have to work hard in the open under exposure. With the help of a smoke of ganja, the labourer suffers neither from cold nor wet, despite insufficient clothing.' Husen Khan, Pathan, Abkari Contractor, Seoni-Chapara, says, 'The labourers can work harder and longer with help of ganja than abstainers from ganja. The staying-powers of ganja under severe exertion are notorious...For those who are habitually exposed to such conditions or to hard labour, moderate habitual ganja smoking is good. To the habitual consumer, ganja smoking is essential to maintenance of a good digestion...I do consider ganja smoking good for the poor labouring classes. It enables them to bear hardships they could not otherwise endure, and gives them staying-power they would not other wise have. I have been a ganja dealer for 17 or 18 years, and I have never known a hard-working out-door labourer or Gond suffer from the habitual moderate indulgence in ganja smoking.' Khan Bahadur Dossabroy Pestonjee, Parsi, Assistant Surgeon, Parakh Dispensary, Surat, and Honorary Assistant Surgeon to His Excellency the Viceroy, says, 'It tends to keep up the vital powers, especially amongst those accustomed to hard labour, as woodcutters and carriers of heavy loads.' Assistant Surgeon G. M. Dixon, Medical Officer and Superintendent, Nara Jailm says, 'Almost all whom I have asked have testified to the moderate use of subzi acting as a digestive and giving them staying-power under severe exposure and alleviating fatigue...In April and May last, when my camp was at Khadi, Barogoza Bund, a malarious and outof-the-way place in Shah Bunder subdivision of Karachi district, there were over a thousand free labourers working on the Bund, and among them there were but a few cases of fever, and no case of sunstroke, although they used to work in the sun under a temperature varying from 130º to 140ºF., the temperature in the shade being about 110ºF. Although I was not in direct medical charge of these free labourers, still, in order to protect the general health of my prisoners, I used to go about amongst the free labourers to find out if there was much sickness or epidemic among them, and good many of these free labourers used to take moderate quantity of subzi in the day time after finishing their work. Khadi is a small village containing about 60 fishermen, who have their temporary huts at the place during the fishing season. These people used to take subzi in moderate doses and all appeared to me to be heathy. Sunstroke and fever were almost unknown among them.'

In response to questions 40 and 41 by the Hemp Commission, on the medical uses of cannabis in 19th century India, we also see the use of cannabis as a prophylactic for the prevention and treatment of diseases like malaria, cholera and fever. Mr. F. H. Barrow, Magistrate and Collector of Bankura, says, 'I have also seen it largely used in malarious districts to counteract exposure to malarious influences and to evade attacks of fever or malarial rheumatism and neuralgia. During epidemic or endemic appearance of cholera it is not only used as an effective medicine mixed with other things, but also alone as a prophylactic by those who are accustomed to it.' Mr. N. K. Bose, Officiating Magistrate and Collector of Noakhali, says, 'By far the best effect of it is considered to be its power of protection against all kinds of exposure, damp, and cold; and as such it has a decided effect against malaria.' Babu Pran Kumar Das, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector and Personal Assistant to the Commissioner of Burdwan, says, 'Ganja...is also considered efficacious to withstand malarial effects and damp climate and exposure. My ganja-smoking servants had less malarious fever, and they said it alleviated pain.' Babu Surendranath Mozoomdar, Brahmin, Special Excise Deputy Collector, Monghyr, says, 'Ganja.—There is no general opinion, but North Gangetic people living in damp and malarious tracts think so. The people of Purnea around the Kosi banks use ganja largely for this purpose. I got fever once in the interior. On the next occasion on taking ganja I did not get any fever. This may be accidental, because I have seen people getting fever who take ganja.' Babu A. K. Ray, Sub-Divisional Magistrate, Bangaon, Jessore District, says, 'Ganja-smoking has been known to nip an attack of cholera in the bud. I have heard an old planter say that where no other medicine was available the moderate smoking of ganja cured no less than 60 per cent. of the men attacked with cholera.' Babu Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, on deputation as 2nd Inspector of Excise, Bengal, says, 'Yes; as a preventive against malaria, rheumatism, etc.' Assistant Surgeon Rai Taraprosanna Rai Bahadur, Baidya, Chemical Examiner to the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, says, 'Ganja is said to give immunity from attacks of miasmatic diseases.' Rai Bahadur Kanny Loll Dey, C.I.E., late Chemical Examiner to the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, says, 'Hemp is acknowledged in British Pharmacopœia as a good febrifuge, and is reputed to be prophylactic of malaria in the steamy swamps of Lower Bengal.' Kedareswar Acharjya, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Rampur Boalia, says, 'Ganja and bhang appear to exert some influence— a preventive of malarial fever. Ganja-smokers appear to be less liable to malarial attacks than other people. ...As a febrifuge, I know one instance in which bhang stopped an attack of tertian ague which formerly resisted treatment.' Rakhal Das Ghosh, Private Medical Practitioner, Calcutta, says 'In countries like Bengal, Orissa and Assam, where poor inhabitants in their daily life are constantly exposed to all vicissitudes of temperature, now burning under a scorching sun, at the next moment being drenched by a heavy shower, it cannot be gainsaid that all sorts of tropical diseases are rampant. Malarious fevers, diarrhœa, dysentery, cholera, influenza, eruptive fevers, are all endemic, and it is a wonder how the people of such places could survive the dire ravages of these diseases. Though thousands of men succumb annually to these maladies, still a large percentage is left to prevent the countries being made deserts. How this large per cent. of people escape the jaws of death amidst such insanitary surroundings? The poor sufferers who cannot either afford to have medical help or medicines, or to travel miles to avail themselves of the benefit of the charitable dispensaries, are saved from their untimely deaths by the use of those drugs which are now the subjects of two Government Commissions. It is a fact beyond dispute, that those who moderately use ganja or opium can tide over or pull through an epidemic better than those who do not. Tetanus, rheumatism,  ague, diarrhœa, dysentery, cholera, dyspepsia and many painful disorders of the urinary or generative organs yield to the anodyne, soporific, antiperiodic, antispasmodic, and other properties of ganja or opium. Aided by these remedies the inhabitants combat for life and death.' Maharaja Bahadoor Sir Joteendra Mohun Tagor, K.C.S.I., Calcutta, says, 'Moderate indulgence acts, it is believed, as a prophylactic against diseases incidental to the low lying parts of the country which are subject to damp and moisture.' Babu Gauri Shankar, Manager, Bachour, Darbhanga, says, 'Ganja.—Medicinally ganja is reported to cure cold and all complaints arising out of cold in the human system.' Babu Beprodas Banerjee, Brahman, Pleader, Newspaper Editor, and Chairman, Baraset Municipality, says, 'As a preventive of diseases one has only to look at the sadhus, who have to remain on mountains, travel through jungles and marshes. Bhairavis ( female ascetics ) use ganja and bhang. People have a notion that these people possess wonderful medicines. Most medicines they give contain opium and bhang, though mercury is used too. In malarious places opium is extensively consumed. It is a remarkable fact that ganja smokers were free from attacks of fever when malaria appeared in Baraset, etc.' Baby Anango Mohan Naha, Kayasth, Judge's Court Pleader, Comilla, Tippera District, says, 'In cholera epidemics I have seen lower classes of people use bhang as a preventive and also as medicine with success. Small number of low class people use bhang in epidemic cholera.' District Board, Monghyr (Sub-Committee), says, 'Ganja is a good preventive of malarial disease.' Mr. B. Robertson, Deputy Commissioner, Nimar, says, 'The use of ganja as a febrifuge is distinctly believed in in this district.' Onkar Das, Agarwalla Bania, Mahajan, Seoni-Chapara, says, 'Also ganja certainly enables the Gond to live under conditions of bad water, and malarial exhalations, which would soon kill a non-smoker of ganja...With the help of a smoke of ganja, the labourer suffers neither from cold nor wet, despite insufficient clothing.' Husen Khan, Pathan, Abkari Contractor, Seoni-Chapara, says, 'The moderate consumption of ganja is certainly beneficial to the labouring classes and to those who are exposed to malaria...The Gonds and cultivating classes in malarial tracts and all weathers could not get on without ganja ; it enables them to live under conditions of water-supply and decaying vegetation which would kill others...I have been a ganja dealer for 17 or 18 years, and I have never known a hard-working out-door labourer or Gond suffer from the habitual moderate indulgence in ganja smoking.' Yashvant Nilkanth, Patana Prabhu, Superintendent, Office of Survey Commissioner, and Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Bombay, says, 'It is sometimes used as an alleged preventive of disease in malarious and unhealthy tracts, ganja smoking for this purpose being not quite unknown in the lower ranks of survey subordinates, whose work causes much exposure to unaccustomed climate. The use is very moderate and occasional.' Assistant Surgeon G. M. Dixon, Medical Officer and Superintendent, Nara Jailm says, 'While this jail was in Thar and Parkar district in some malarious places, but very few of the surrounding free population came to be treated for fevers at this jail hospital, and among these men the moderate drinking of subzi was prevalent. In April and May last, when my camp was at Khadi, Barogoza Bund, a malarious and outof-the-way place in Shah Bunder subdivision of Karachi district, there were over a thousand free labourers working on the Bund, and among them there were but a few cases of fever, and no case of sunstroke, although they used to work in the sun under a temperature varying from 130º to 140ºF., the temperature in the shade being about 110ºF. Although I was not in direct medical charge of these free labourers, still, in order to protect the general health of my prisoners, I used to go about amongst the free labourers to find out if there was much sickness or epidemic among them, and good many of these free labourers used to take moderate quantity of subzi in the day time after finishing their work. Khadi is a small village containing about 60 fishermen, who have their temporary huts at the place during the fishing season. These people used to take subzi in moderate doses and all appeared to me to be heathy. Sunstroke and fever were almost unknown among them.' G. V. Kot, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Amraoti, says, 'I have been informed of cases in which attacks of intermittent fevers (ague) have disappeared by a single process of smoking ganja—cases I mean of jungle fevers, in which the administration of even large doses of quinine have failed to ward off the attacks or in districts in which quinine is not obtainable.'

Witnesses also cite the benefit of ganja in allaying hunger, in response to questions 40 and 41 on medical uses of cannabis among the poor working classes. Babu Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, on deputation as 2nd Inspector of Excise, Bengal, says, 'Yes; ganja smoker does not feel hunger after smoking ganja. Labouring and poorer classes can work for a long time without any food after smoking ganja.' Assistant Surgeon Chooney Lall Dass, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence and Therapeutics, Medical School, Dacca, says, 'Moderate use of bhang nourishes the body that is, makes it fat, eases pain when present, and it has a cooling effect.' Mohes Chunder Ghose, G.M.C.B., Kayasth, Medical Practitioner, Ramnagar, 24-Parganas, says, 'It also diminishes for a time a desire for food, and enables persons accustomed to its use to stand a longer privation of it...Charas and ganja smoked in moderation are not baneful. They give tone to the wearied muscular system, and enable the poor labouring classes to withstand privations with greater alacrity than they otherwise would do.' Mr. J. J. S. Driberg, Commissioner of Excise and Inspector General of Police and Jails, says, 'Yes, decidedly so. It helps a man to travel long distances without food. I had a syce who went 60 miles in 18 consecutive hours merely smoking ganja and was quite fit the next day.'

The benefit of cannabis, as an aid to sleep, is also cited in a number of instances. After a hard day's work, when ganja eases the pain and fatigue, it will naturally aid a person in a good night's sleep. Assistant Surgeon Bosonto Kumar Sen, in Civil Medical Charge, Bogra, says, 'They produce sound sleep and relieve pain and anxiety.'  Rev. O. Lohr, Medical Missionary, Bisrampur, Raipur District, says, 'It may be soothing and act as an inducement to sleep.'

The stimulant nature of cannabis enabling the working class to get back to work the next day is also cited by witnesses in response to questions 40 and 41 on its medical uses. Assistant Surgeon Devendranath Roy, Brahmin, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence, Campbell Medical School, Calcutta, says, 'They are stimulants, hence used as such by people living in unhealthy places as well.' Assistant Surgeon Akbar Khan, Teacher, Temple Medical School, Patna, says, 'as a producer of excitement in doing works promptly and willingly.' Maharaja Bahadoor Sir Joteendra Mohun Tagor, K.C.S.I., Calcutta, says, 'Its cheapness recommends it to the poor people who require a stimulant to sustain them in their physical labours, and in its effects is less injurious on the whole than alcoholic drinks. Bhang is a more innocent narcotic. It is generally drunk and is medicinal to some extent in helping digestion. It is largely used in the preparations of the medicines administered by the Kabirajes (native physicians) and is considered both as an appetiser and aphrodisiac. Its use is more extensive among the people of the North-West Provinces, many of whom take it regularly as a stimulating and refreshing beverage every evening, and some even twice a day; nor is the drink, as far as I know, considered reprehensible from a social point of view, for almost every male member of a family uses it freely and openly, and does not look upon its use in the light of a moral delinquency. When used in moderate and regulated doses, it has seldom been known to have any injurious effect.' S. Sadik Ali Sherali, Deputy Collector and First Class Magistrate, Frontier District of Upper Sind, says, 'Persons addicted to the use of bhang and charas take their accustomed allowance generally after they are free from work requiring manual labour. Ordinarily their time is about 10 o'clock in the morning and 5 o'clock in the afternoon, A smoke of charas is also taken at the time of going to bed in the night in order to get sleep. ...In the hot season in the Upper Sind districts, where the heat is intense and weather dry to the extreme degree, the moderate use of the light watery preparation of bhang is both beneficial and harmless, It acts as a diaphoretic, stimulant, diuretic and refrigerent. Its moderate use throughout the hot season from the middle of March to the middle of October does not in any way tend to the engendering of any of the diseases and disorders described in Appendix A. '

Misinformation spread by the upper classes and castes

Despite the overwhelming evidence that cannabis usage, especially ganja smoking, alleviated fatigue, warded off diseases and helped the labouring and working classes to work long hours in adverse conditions, such as the exposure to sun, rain, humidity and cold, there are a number of upper class and upper caste witnesses to the Hemp Commission who did not hesitate to find other imaginary reasons for why the working and labouring classes smoked ganja. The imaginary reasons that these witnesses attribute for ganja smoking by the working classes shows their apathy, inherent bias and discrimination towards those they perceived as lower classes and castes inferior to themselves. Babu Rasik Lal Ghose, Court of Wards' Manager, Dinajpur, says, 'They are generally low class people. Evil company, evil custom, debauchery and immorality lead them to the practice.' Babu Braja Durlabh Hazara, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Howrah, says, 'They want apparently to make their temper rough and rude. But they take to the drugs mostly whimsically. They begin in the company of veteran old smokers, and they keep it up as an incentive and support to their habits which are as a rule immoral.' Rev. D. Morison, M.B., C.M., M.D., Medical Missionary, Rampur Boalia, says, '(1) Example. (2) Cheapness of drug. (3) Facility for obtaining it without inconvenience; shops near. (4) Its fascination when once indulged in.' Mr. E. Turner, Collector of Madura, says, 'Rude classes. Indolent habits lead to the practice.' Mr. J. H. Gwynne, Deputy Collector, Wynaad, Malabar District, says, 'The circumstances which mainly lead to the practice are idleness, mendicancy, and an inclination for intoxicants.' Assistant Surgeon Saldhana, Salem, says, 'So far as I could gather, no particular habit of life or circumstance seems to lead to the practice. Some seem to learn from others, just as in the case of the vice of tobacco smoking or drinking; some seem to have recourse to it as a cheap way of intoxicating themselves, as men-tioned in paragraph 25 ; and a few contract the habit from having first used the ganja as a medicinal agent for asthma, for instance.'  B. Narayanmurty, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Ganjam, says, 'The society in which men constantly move, and lazy and sensual habits lead to the practice.' Rev. J. Heinrichs, Missionary, Vinukunda, Kistna District, says, 'Men of comparatively low moral status indulge in its use.'  Ganjam Vencataratnam, Brahmin, 1st Grade Pleader, Coconada, Godavery District, says, 'Others get into the habit, in the majority of cases, by their association with bairagis, and some of them believe also in its medicinal properties. Their habits of life are not active, and society looks upon them as unsteady characters.' Rao Sahib Krishnaji Ballal Deval, Chitpavan, Brahmin, Mamlatdar and Magistrate, 1st Class, Chiplon, says, 'the practice is obtained thus :—In a village there is generally a common place, such as temples, etc. Bad characters generally assemble there to chit-chat in the morning and in the evening. 'When idle talks on some topics begin, some one of these men gently introduces a smoking pipe called chillum. Strangers who are not accustomed are gently pressed to partake of this stuff. This stuff being an intoxicating drug naturally induces the beginners to smoke, and in this way the habit is contracted.' Mr. R. Giles, Collector, Shikarpur, says, 'Idleness is the chief cause which leads to drinking.' Rao Bahadur Lashmansing Matthraji, Police Inspector, Hyderabad, Sind, says, 'Bad company or debauchery leads to these habits.' Dr. S. M. Kaka, Medical Officer of Health, Karachi, says, 'Low company mainly leads to the practice.' Rev. A. E. Ball, Missionary, Church Missionary Society, Karachi, says, 'The taking of opium, bad company and debauchery lead to this practice. Sometimes in the beginning it is taken as a medicine, and then it grows into a habit.' Pesumal Nerumal, Farmer and Merchant, Hyderabad, says, 'Among the laymen, bad company or the want of proper care by parents leads their children into these habits.' Dayaram Kishunchand, Bhang, Charas and Ganja, and Opium Farmer, Hyderabad, says, 'The company of the smokers of these drugs often leads to these habits, and sometimes they are taken as an antidote against diseases.' Mr. J. C. Watcha, Excise Inspector, Ellichpur, says, 'The habits are acquired by association.' Laxman Gopal Deshpande, Brahmin, Naib Tahsildar, Mangrul Taluk, District Basim, says, 'The practice is mainly contracted owing to the bad association.' G. V. Kot, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Amraoti, says, 'The smokers are generally of the lowest grades of society and the respectable who have been addicted to smoking are generally through contact or association with the low, or occasionally the habit has been induced to allay pain or infirmity.' Lakshman Atmaram Mahajan, Merchant, Manjrul Pir, says, ' The lazy and careless use these drugs.' Mr. J. Kennedy, Magistrate and Collector of Murshidabad, says, 'Poverty seems the main reason for people using ganja.' Laldas Laxmonji, Kshatriya, Solicitor's Clerk, Bombay, says, 'The practice of smoking ganja takes its rise chiefly on account of luxurious habits with a view to a relief of miseries and anxieties and for medicinal purposes.'   Syed Mohamed Husain, Extra Assistant Commissioner; Diwan, Khairagarh State, says, 'Generally ganja...is used by the criminal tribes, Pasi, Baria, Khangar and Kunjar...'  Mr. G. Cloney, Superintendent of Jail, Tanjore, says, 'From my knowledge and experience I should say that habitual excessive ganja smokers belong to that class, summarised under the definitions bad and doubtful livelihood...and criminal classes generally.' Saiyid Mahmud alias Hakeem Nhannay Mian, Medical Practitioner, Cuddapah, says, 'Gamblers, thieves, licentious persons, beggars, independent men and servants, whose income is Rs. 10 or below, make use of hemp drugs.' Yashvanth Nilkanth, Patana Prabhu, Superintendent, Office of Survey Commissioner, and Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Bombay, says, 'The cultivating classes are almost free from this vice. They do not use hemp drugs as a stimulant, nor do they use them to sustain themselves under a stress of work. Their belief is that a ganja smoker cannot be a steady worker, and has not the hardness to undergo great labour under heat and sun. An habitual ganja smoker does not stand high in their esteem.'  Babu Nobin Chandra Sarkar, Kayasth, Wholesale and retail vendor of ganja and bhang, Barisal, says, 'Chandals generally belong to the criminal classes.' 

There are a number of witnesses - all witnesses to the Hemp Commission were from the upper classes and castes - who probably have not done even a day's hard physical labour in their lives, who extend the psychoanalysis of why the labouring classes use ganja to state that these classes are under the 'impression' that it alleviates fatigue and protects health. For a person doing hard physical work, day in and day out for years, impression is one thing and reality another. An impression would not last long if it was not true. I myself have seen that when I work on my small half-acre farm for a few days in a year that smoking ganja enables me to get up and go back to work the next day after having spent 6-7 hours toiling the previous day. It takes away the pain from the aching muscles and makes me fresh to start a new day's work. Without ganja, the fatigue and pain take much longer to subside, and my ability to put in long hours of hard physical work suffers. But these facts do not stop the hypocritical upper classes and castes sitting on their fat asses to pass judgement on those working hard to feed and clothe them, and do the work that they themselves are completely incapable of doing. Mr. N. K. Bose, Officiating Magistrate and Collector of Noakhali, says, 'The day-labourers take up this practice under the impression that it enables them to undergo fatigue and exposure without their health being impaired.' Babu Nobo Gopal Bose Rai Chowdhoory, Kayasth, Talukdar and Judge's Court Pleader (late Munsiff of Nator), Memari, Burdwan District, says, 'The notion of these men is that they cannot live here unless they use ganja to prevent malarious fever.'  Babu Abantinath Datta, Kayastha, Pleader, Judge's Court, Cachar, says, 'Some began it under a belief that it gave them strength and enabled them to go through hard work; but the majority started the habit from the contagion of bad examples.' Kamini Kumar Chandra, Kayastha, Bengali, Pleader, Silchar, says, 'In the case of excessive consumers, they become less thrifty, they care more for the drug than anything else; lose power of self-control, and become more and more enslaved to the drug, and would not attend to anything when they have their craving for the drug unless they get it, and vice versâ. By giving them some ganja, one can make them do any work which they would not do for love or for money. They become indolent and also excitable.' Doorga Das Sen, Baidya, Assistant Surgeon, Warora, says, 'People take to the habit of smoking ganja and drinking bhang with an idea that the said drugs have a peculiar effect in giving tone to their muscles and nerves, making them more active and energetic and better fitted for hard and risky labour...' Adhar Singh Gour, Kshattri, Barrister-at-law, Hoshangabad, says, 'These classes of people are as a rule ill clad. They think that the use of the drug fortifies them against the extremes of weather...Poor people, because it is an assuager of cares.'  Lala Ramshahi and Lala Sitaram,  Abkari Contractors, Nagpur, say, 'People of low castes and labourers are inclined to use ganja, under the impression that its intoxication relieves them from the exhaustion.' Waman Ganesh, Tahsildar, Wun, says, 'It is a general opinion of the public that exertions of severe nature can be alleviated by ganja smoking.' Syad Abdul Jabbar, Zamindar, Commilla, Tippera, says 'A large number of lower uneducated people use ganja. An enormous number of the low class Hindus consume ganja in pretence of their religious worship. .. The labourers of the lower class and menial servants give themselves up to the habit of ganja, charas, and bhang using.'

One more reason for calling the upper classes and castes imbeciles is that they decided to take away the very ganja that enabled the working classes to toil relentlessly and make the upper classes and castes richer. Basic human resource management philosophy would state that keeping your workforce happy is the way to achieve success. But, no, these imbeciles wanted to take away the one thing that kept a working man in good running condition. Not only that, after taking away the working man's ganja, the upper classes and castes got the working classes hooked onto the addictive poisons - alcohol, tobacco and opium - that they themselves loved. With the increased use of these poisons, many lives were, and are still, lost among the working classes, who have no other alternate stimulant for their needs. Even larger numbers of the working classes lose their ability to work efficiently through the prolonged use of the alternate poisons and end up on the streets, if they do not end up dead first. All because the imbecile upper classes and castes want to not just make the working classes toil for them, but also become even more wealthy by selling to these working classes alcohol, tobacco and opium. This is much like cutting open the stomach of the goose that lays golden eggs because one wants to have it all now.

Upper classes, upper castes and their usage of cannabis and other drugs

So, we see above, the diverse occupations among the working classes of India who used ganja for intoxication and medicine, and the extent of usage. We also see many disparaging remarks from the witnesses who belonged to the upper classes and castes against the labouring and working classes and the usage of ganja by these classes. So, did the upper classes and castes not use any drugs, including cannabis?

We see, on the contrary, from the evidence that the upper classes and castes all used cannabis but mostly in forms other than smoking it as ganja. It was not only bhang, charas and majum - the cannabis plant in forms other than ganja - that these upper classes and castes consumed, they also drank alcohol, smoked tobacco, and consumed opium. Alcohol, tobacco and opium had been introduced in India by the British who preferred these drugs. The upper classes and castes took to these new drugs in imitation of the British, who said it was less harmful than cannabis and that these were the drugs that refined educated upper class and upper caste societies consumed. All these new drugs were more expensive than bhang, ganja, charas and majum. But affordability was not an issue for the Indian upper classes, unlike for the poor working and labouring classes. The British politicians and businessmen had huge stakes in alcohol, tobacco and opium, and they sought to increase the market for these drugs among the Indians as it meant much greater revenue and profits as compared to cannabis which grew everywhere in India, was widely used and cost almost nothing. The upper classes and castes consumed all these drugs mainly for recreation or pleasure, intoxication, and to cure the indigestion that came with consuming too much and doing too little physical work. 

It appears that only a few from the upper classes and castes smoked cannabis as ganja, having gone to great extents to label ganja as the drug of the lowest classes and castes, and the practice of smoking ganja as contemptible and disgraceful. They did so in hiding, so as to keep the reputation and the prestige of their classes intact. How did the upper classes consume cannabis then? They ate and drank cannabis as bhang, adding ingredients that only they could afford - such as nuts, spices, milk, etc. - and made it appear that bhang was a completely different thing from ganja, even though both were the same cannabis plant, with only the mode of consumption varying. The upper classes and castes drank bhang freely and openly, and even proclaimed and flaunted it as a habit that reflected the refinement and superiority of the well-to-do upper classes and castes sanctioned by their religions. It was not only that these upper classes and castes ate and drank cannabis as bhang, they also ate it as the confectionary majum. They also smoked cannabis as charas, which is essentially the resin of the cannabis flowers or ganja. Charas was expensive and large quantities of charas were mostly imported from West Asia or northeastern regions like Nepal, and so only the upper classes could afford it. Charas did not produce the strong smell that ganja produced, and could be more easily masked with other scents. 

Ganja, majum and charas usage by upper classes and castes

Regarding majum and charas usage by the upper classes and castes, and its being unaffordable to the working classes, we see the evidence from various witnesses. Mr. W. H. Grimley, Commissioner of Chota Nagpur, says 'Majum and charas are beyond the means of the poorer classes.' Mr. W. R. Bright, Deputy Commissioner of Palámau, says 'Ganja is consumed a good deal by the agricultural classes after their day's work, but is also consumed by the richer men. The former use it to do away with fatigue, the latter for their own pleasure, and also for the satisfaction of their carnal desires, as it increases or is said to increase retentive power.' Babu Gour Das Bysack, Retired Deputy Collector, Calcutta, says, 'In Calcutta...As regards the Bengalis, the people of Bag Bazar were at one time notorious for ganja-smoking, but their number in other parts of the town was much smaller. Compared to other castes, the proportion of the Bengali smokers of ganja and charas was and is considerably low; but the use of ganja is gradually increasing, because it is less expensive than alcohol. Charas is consumed by about 10 per cent.: it is mostly confined to wellto-do people of the above classes.' Babu Kali Das Mukerji, Sub-Deputy Collector and Superintendent of Distillery, Serampore, Hughli, says, 'Charas is, on the other hand, generally consumed by the middle and higher classes, and rarely, if ever, by the lower stratum of the Indian society...Ganja is used by the middle class as a less expensive relaxation, by the idle sons of the millionaires as a positive intoxicating drug auxiliary to drinking pleasures...' Babu Jogendra Nath Mozumdar, Brahmin, Deputy Inspector of Excise, Darjeeling, says, 'The excessive use of ganja is resorted to by those who have very little else to do. Companionship with ganja smokers is another cause of its inducement.' Mr. W. C. Fasson, District Superintendent of Police, Bogra, says, 'The fact is that people do not care to admit its use, but I am told that nearly all prostitutes and their clients drink it.' Mr. F. H. Tucker, District Superintendent of Police, Dinajpur, says, 'Charas and majun are taken by those shamelessly intemperate persons of the middle class, whose pleasure it is to amuse themselves with all sorts of drugs and drinks.' Mr. R. L. Ward, District Superintendent of Police, Rajshahi, says, 'It is, I think, a mistake to suppose that the Behar and the Rajput landlords do not also use ganja....Even men of the middle and higher classes smoke ganja in Eastern Bengal, the proportion being quite 20 or 25 per cent. of the whole population...Higher classes are usually first led to the habit by association with prostitutes, who nearly all use the drug in moderation.' Babu Mathura Mohan Sirkar, Inspector of Police, Jhenida, District Jessore, says, 'School-boys who have a tendency for music take first to moderate ganja smoking and then go to the excess and fall in life.' Mr. W. R. Ricketts, Manager, Nilgiri State, Tributary Mahals, Orissa, says, '(a) All classes who can afford it, and have much spare time. An indolent and inactive life generally leads to the habitual use of ganja...The middle class of people whenever they have the time and opportunity.' Babu Pratapchandra Ghosha, Registrar of Calcutta, says, 'Charas. — All those mentioned above have been seen to enjoy this luxury also.' Rai Bahadur Kanny Loll Dey, C.I.E., late Chemical Examiner to the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, says, 'Charas is expensive, so it is seldom used by low class men...Bhang is a favourite with the up-country people. In Lower Bengal ...up-country rich men use it.' Assistant Surgeon Devendranath Roy, Brahmin, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence, Campbell Medical School, Calcutta, says, 'Among the well-to-do class both habitual moderate and excessive consumers are found.' Assistant Surgeon Soorjee Narain Singh, Kayasth, Bankipur, says 'Charas.—This is used chiefly by the well-to-do and dissipated persons, either occasionally or habitually, in moderate or in excessive quantities, for its exhilarating and aphrodisiac effects.' Assistant Surgeon Hari Mohan Sen, Baidya, Chittagong, says, 'Well-to-do, well-fed, leisured classes. They take to the use of the drug [ganja] for the fun of the thing to occupy their vacant hours, and for the aphrodisiac properties of the drug.' Pyari Sankar Dass Gupta, Baidya, Medical Practitioner, Secretary, Bogra Medical Society, Bogra, says, 'corrupt young men of higher classes..' Maharaja Girijanath Roy Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'Ganja is consumed mainly...by the upper classes for the mere luxury of intoxication. The same remarks apply to the consumption of other drugs.' Babu Surendra Nath Pal Chowdhury, Zamindar, Ranaghat, District Nadia, says, 'Amongst others, bhang is generally used for medicinal purposes, though occasionally drunk for the sake of pleasure by number of respectable Bengalis and up-country men. There is a very small number of occasional moderate consumers of ganja and charas, who use them for the sake of pleasure. They are generally found among the well-to-do class of men. On some religious occasions bhang is used by all Hindus in moderate quantities, and ganja by some, moderately too...Bad characters take to excessive consumption occasionally when they have anything to do, as thereby their senses are stupefied. Licentious persons and profligates, though they also come under head (a), generally have recourse to excessive use of these drugs (charas in especial), the effect being sexual endurance.' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'Another factor in the cases of others, though not a numerous class, may be found in the desires for a stimulant for their purposes of sexual pleasure.' Babu Sasadhar Roy, Brahmin, Pleader and Honorary Magistrate, Rajshahi, says, 'I should note that ...very rarely bhadralok also of wealth (these last as a substitute for wine)...are consumers, more or less, of ganja and bhang...bhadralok for pleasure, including sexual indulgence.' Babu Nobin Chandra Sarkar, Kayasth, Wholesale and retail vendor of ganja and bhang, Barisal, says, 'Gentlemen who use it to bad habits contracted in early life.' Krishna Chandra Sanyal, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Sylhet, says, 'At Rajshahi middle classes use charas...Upper and middle class men consume ganja and siddhi in company of friends in festivities.' Seth Bachraj, Honorary Magistrate, Wardha, says, 'Some young men use it to increase sensual passions.' P. Lakshminarayana, Brahmin, Manager of Court of Wards' Estate, Nuzvid, says, 'Ganja is used for smoking by the rich and the poor but charas by the rich alone, it being a very valuable article. All the Bairagis use ganja invariably in the way of smoking. Charas is used for smoking by very rich people, such as Nawabs, Amirs, etc., amongst Musalmans alone. Ganja is used almost everywhere, while charas in places like Hyderabad, Kabul, etc.' Mr. G. Cloney, Superintendent of Jail, Tanjore, says, 'In a few cases as in those of the well-to-do Muhammadans and Hindus who lead listless and sedentary lives, ganja has powerful attractions. It excites their appetite and removes the insufferable ennui of their existence. In this instance the aimless life may be said to beget the ganja habit, but, generally, as in the case of the ordinary individual, the ganja habit (to excess) begets demoralization.' Hospital Assistant I. Parthasarathy Chetty, Penukonda, Anantapur District, says, 'Bhang, better known by the name of rama-rasam in the Telugu-speaking country, is used but rarely almost by every class of people, from the highest Brahman to the lowest Pariah. Muhammadans, especially fakirs, use this. Generally this preparation is made use of by people clustering themselves into pleasure parties, in which will be found also refined Hindus who loathe the name of intoxicating liquors. I came across such parties in Uriya country, Ganjam district. Rajputs and Mahrattas use the drug in this form very largely, and, it is said, specially during the Kama feast.' Sri Vasudeva Rajamani Rajah Deo, Kshatria, Zamindar of Mandasa, Ganjam District, says, 'It is used by all sorts of people, including Brahmans; but almost half the population in the Puri district and one-fourth of Ganjum, Cuttack, Balasore, and Sambalpur districts smoke ganja...' Mr. C. G. Dodgson, Assistant Magistrate and Collector, Khandesh, says, 'The broad distinction between the use of ganja and bhang is that the former is chiefly confined to the poorer and lower classes of society.' Dadhabhai Burjorjee Guzder, Parsi, District Abkari Inspector, Ahmednagar, says, 'Yakuti, gulkand, and shrikhand are used by rich persons on account of their sweet scent, and because of their partial intoxicating quality.' 

When you read all this, it will not be surprising if the thought enters your mind that things have not changed much at all since the 19th century. The witnesses might just as well have been talking about the behavior of today's upper classes and castes.

Bhang

The working and labouring classes smoked cannabis as ganja, unlike the upper classes and castes who ate or drank cannabis as bhang. There were various reasons for this preferred mode of cannabis consumption by the working and labouring classes. For one thing, preparing bhang - which including adding various ingredients like spices, nuts, milk, etc - was expensive and time consuming, both factors that made this mode of consumption unviable for the poor labouring and working classes. Also the working and labouring classes did not attach any contempt or dishonour with smoking cannabis as ganja and so did not fear detection, unlike the upper classes and castes who, having created the perception that all who smoked ganja were low class and low caste, now wanted to consume cannabis but do so discretely to protect their so-called honour and respect, thus consuming cannabis as a drink or eating it, and giving this cannabis an entirely new name, 'bhang'.  The newer caste-based religions and the latter religions of Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam, Zoroastrianism and Christianity forbade the use of alcohol. That is another reason for followers of these religions choosing to drink bhang. From the usage of cannabis smoked as ganja by the aboriginal tribes and indigenous communities and the usage of cannabis as bhang by the caste based and newer religions we see how the earlier cultures of India were slowly overrun by the newer cultures that came along with migrants from different parts of the world. The predominance of the usage of bhang in the northern parts of India, referred to by many witnesses as 'up-country people' and the predominance of the use of ganja in the north east and southern parts of India show how the original inhabitants were pushed further northeast and south by the new migrants. This also shows how Siva - the god of the aboriginal tribes and indigenous communities - was slowly replaced by Vishnu, other Vedic gods, and the gods of the newer religions.  The Hemp Commission says, in its summary, that '470. ...For ganja is far more extensively used than bhang by the labouring classes. The latter is mainly used by persons like the Chaubes of Mathra, who are very frequently referred to, and professional wrestlers...Among the upper classes this habit [of smoking cannabis as ganja or charas] is generally regarded as exceptional and indicating a special tendency to dissipation, but not so among these lower classes. Bhang is also used to some extent by these classes, but is more generally used by the more respectable middle and upper classes. Among those who are specially mentioned as habitually using [bhang] are Marwaris, Banias, and jewellers, sharp, intelligent, and successful tradesmen. Bhang is also occasionally used more or less generally by practically all classes on certain feast days and at times of social rejoicing. Like all intoxicants everywhere, the drugs are used in moderation, but more frequently to excess, by licentious and dissipated persons of all classes. Except, however, in the case of religious mendicants, the use by all the classes named above is generally moderate. Excess is exceptional.' The discrimination against the lower classes and castes on the basis of the mode of consumption of cannabis, i.e. smoking it as ganja, is again evident in the summary section 489 of the Commission's report, where it says '489. From what has been said above it will be expected that there would be many witnesses whose opinion regarding the use of these drugs as stimulants would not be favourable. The very great majority of witnesses in all provinces declare that this use of the drugs is regarded with disapproval by the people generally. This disapproval rests on several grounds. It depends partly on the classes using the drugs. Many witnesses point out that ganja is the cheapest intoxicant, and that it is principally used by the lower classes, while bhang is more used by the upper classes. They state that it is on this account that ganja smoking is regarded with much more general disfavour than bhang drinking. As one witness points out, the feeling is somewhat akin to that which some Englishmen who do not generally disapprove of stimulants have regarding a "vulgar taste for gin." On the other hand, the use of ganja by religious persons is not thus generally disapproved. Many witnesses share the view which one witness tersely expresses thus: "Sanyasis are respected by the people; low caste people are not respected." '

In addition to the summary by the Hemp Commission, we see the extensive evidence provided by individual witness to the Commission regarding the use of bhang by the upper classes and castes. Babu Ram Charan Bose, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Alipur, 24-Parganas, says, 'Bhang is mostly consumed by up-country people.' Babu Rasik Lal Ghose, Court of Wards' Manager, Dinajpur, says, 'Bhang is prepared and taken up by the upcountry people for luxury; by common country people as medicine, both for men and cattle.' Mr. W. M. Smith, Retired Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Sonthal Parganas, says, 'The Deoghur priests are the principal consumers of bhang known to me.' Babu Hem Chunder Kerr, Kayasth, Retired Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Sub-Registrar of Sealdah, says, 'Up-country people, such as darwans, etc., generally drink bhang...' Babu Kali Das Mukerji, Sub-Deputy Collector and Superintendent of Distillery, Serampore, Hughli, says, 'Bhang is prepared generally by the lower and middle classes of the people from the wild hemp plant...Bhang is usually consumed by the higher and middle classes, and occasionally by the labourers It is... a special favourite drug of the up-countrymen living in Bengal. By these men I mean the Hindus and Jains, such as Marwaris, Kayias, and Shings, but not Muhammadans....Siddhi is usually used by the higher and middle classes as a digestive, pleasure-giving, invigorating drug and purifier of blood.' Babu Jogendra Nath Mozumdar, Brahmin, Deputy Inspector of Excise, Darjeeling, says, 'Bhang is used throughout the province, more or less amongst all classes of the people. The eating of bhang in pills or sweetmeats is a matter of fancy and convenience, but the drinking of bhang is the ordinary method of its consumption...' Mr. F. H. Tucker, District Superintendent of Police, Dinajpur, says, 'Ganja is indulged by the lower classes of the people and bhang by the middle classes of the gentry, especially during the time of festivals, such as Bijaya and Sivaratri.' Mr. R. L. Ward, District Superintendent of Police, Rajshahi, says, 'Fifty per cent. or more of the up-country people drink bhang, and about 20 per cent. of other places use it.' Mahamahopadhya Mahesha Chandra Nyayaratna, C. I. E., Brahmin, Principal, Government Sanskrit College, Calcutta, says, 'Up-country darwans generally drink or swallow pastes of bhang prepared with other ingredients according to taste...Habitual drinkers of siddhi take it as a mild and inexpensive intoxicating drug..In Behar, the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, bhang is largely in use amongst members of the upper castes, Brahmans, Khatriyas and Vaishas; and amongst the priestly class, in particular in places of pilgrimage, such as Baidyanath, Gaya, Benares, Prayag, Mathura, Brindaban and Haridwar. Of up-country people residing in Calcutta and other places in Bengal, many take bhang...Some take to siddhi or bhang as a medicine for bowel and nervous complaints; some take it as a brain tonic. There is a common saying Siddhi khele buddhi bare, ganja khele lakhi chare, which means "taking siddhi adds to the intellectual power, smoking ganja brings on poverty."' Babu Jadub Chandra Chuckerbutty, Brahmin, Civil and Sessions Judge, Kuch Behar, says, 'Bhang is used by the up-country men here.' Rai Kamalapati Ghosal Bahadur, Brahmin, Pensioner, SubRegistrar and Zamindar, 24-Parganas, says, 'Other castes such as Pods, Musalmans, Kaibartas, as well as Brahmans, Baidyas and Kayasths do not, as a rule, smoke the ganja to a larger extent.' Rai Bahadur Kanny Loll Dey, C.I.E., late Chemical Examiner to the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, says, 'Bhang is a favourite with the up-country people. In Lower Bengal ...up-country rich men use it.' Assistant Surgeon Norendra Nath Gupta, Baidya, in Civil Medical charge, Rangpur, says, 'Bhang is occasionally used as drink by the people here, specially by the up-country men, and it is rarely eaten by some prepared with luchis and kachuris.' Assistant Surgeon Chooney Lall Dass, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence and Therapeutics, Medical School, Dacca, says 'Bhang is mostly used by up-country people, mendicants, and by some respectable and middle class Hindus and Muhammadans. A great majority of them drink, and about one per cent. eat, bhang.' Assistant Surgeon Devendranath Roy, Brahmin, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence, Campbell Medical School, Calcutta, says, 'Among the well-to-do class both habitual moderate and excessive consumers are found.' Assistant Surgeon Soorjee Narain Singh, Kayasth, Bankipur, says 'In Behar, the North-Western Provinces, the Punjab and Orissa bhang is a favourite drink of a certain class of Hindus, especially of the upper castes to whom spirituous liquor is prohibited. The Brijobasis of Mathura and the people of Rajputana are well-known bhang drinkers. In Bengal the use of bhang is very limited and is indulged in generally on particular ceremonial occasions; as for instance, on the Bijoya Dasami day of Durga Puja with the Bengalis. Many up-country men—Hindus—living in Bengal, especially most of the darwans employed in the mercantile houses, and wealthy native gentlemen of Calcutta and other large towns use bhang as a daily drink.' Assistant Surgeon Behari Lal Pal, Sadgop, Krishnagar, Nadia, says, 'Up-country men generally drink bhang.' Assistant Surgeon Hari Mohan Sen, Baidya, Chittagong, says, 'Siddhi is consumed by the well-to-do people to "cool the system when it is very hot," for certain excitement and as medicines when the bowels are out of order. Religious mendicants take it for the same purpose as that for which they consume ganja.' Pyari Sankar Dass Gupta, Baidya, Medical Practitioner, Secretary, Bogra Medical Society, Bogra, says, 'People who have not means to procure wine or ganja, or have some religious prejudices to the former, eat and drink bhang. Those who were formerly addicted to wine or ganja, but have left them owing to disease or poverty, use this. It is used in many villages, and among higher classes. Uriyas and up-country men use it more than the Bengalis...' Bijoya Ratna Sen, Kaviranjan, Kabiraj, Calcutta, says, 'Ganja and charas are generally taken by lower and labouring classes, but certain people of the higher and gentle classes, being mixed with bad company and following all immoral habits, are also found to use them. These are not, however, generally taken by the gentle class.' Raja Peary Mohun Mukerji, C.S.I., Zamindar, Uttarpara, Hughli, says 'Bhang is mostly eaten and drunk by upcountry people. In Lower Bengal the largest proportion of consumers consist of sanyasis, upcountry traders, and darwans.' Raja Mahima Ranjan Roy Chowdhry, Zamindar, Kakina, Rangpur, says, 'Up-country men are generally accustomed to drink bhang.' Rai Radha Govinda Rai, Sahib Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'Both rich and poor use bhang...' Rai Tara Persad Mukerjee Bahadur, Brahman, Zamindar, Pleader, Saran Bar, Chairman of Municipal Board, Revelganj, and of Local Board, Chapra, President, Bench of Magistrates, Chapra and Revelganj, says, 'Bhang is used by some of the higher and also by the lower classes, and mostly by the Mathura Chowbay Brahmins.' Babu Raghunandan Prasad Sinha, Brahman, Zamindar, District Muzaffarpur, says, 'Nearly 85 per cent. of sadhus (ascetics) of all orders and places eat or drink bhang, and also 20 per cent. of the Hindu house-holders; but many of them do not do it continually and regulary, and specially not all the year round. Bhang drinking is specially done in hot season, and eating in rainy and winter seasons. The practice is universal and not confined to any locality. Sixty per cent. of the higher Hindu castes of the NorthWestern Provinces do drink or eat bhang, which is specially universal in its character in Muttra among Chaubays. Bhang eating is resorted to by comparatively few persons.' Babu Surendra Nath Pal Chowdhury, Zamindar, Ranaghat, District Nadia, says, 'The up-country men generally drink bhang, though occasionally eat it. Perhaps it will be no exaggeration to say that almost all of them indulge in it. Bengalis also, to some extent, eat or drink it, either for medicinal purposes or as an intoxicating drug, instead of alcohol...Amongst others, bhang is generally used for medicinal purposes, though occasionally drunk for the sake of pleasure by number of respectable Bengalis and up-country men.' Babu Girjapat Sahai, Kayasth, Zamindar, Patnam says, 'Brahmins generally take bhang, which they say helps in their devotions.' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'Bhang is generally used by the classes to whom the use of spirituous liquors is prohibited on religious grounds, such as Brahmins, Kshetriyas, and other higher castes. Ninety per cent. of the pandas or spiritual guides attached to the temples of Baidyanath, Deogurh, and Gaya in Behar are as a class addicted to the use of bhang...the habitual excessive consumers of bhang are the pandas or spiritual guides attached to the temples at Baidyanath and Gaya and other similar temples...' Babu Jagat Kishor Acharjea Chaudhuri, Brahmin, Zamindar, Muktagacha, District Mymensingh, says, 'Especially the up-country people that reside in this district are addicted to the use of bhang as a drink, and there is no particular locality where bhang is drunk...' Babu Krishna Chandra Rai, Baidya, Government Pensioner and Zamindar, District Dacca, says, 'Bhang consumers generally belong to the middle class of the population. Low people do not use it as narcotic or for intoxication.' Babu Bepin Behari Bose, Kayasth, Zamindar, Sridhanpur in Jessore, says, 'The former [ganja] is much used in smoking by the lower class of people and the latter [bhang] by the middle class. ..Bhang is used in drinking by middle classes in North-Western Provinces, Behar, and Bengal.' M. Kazi Rayaz-Ud-Din Mahamed, Zamindar, Commilla, Tippera, says, 'The up-country men are generally in the habit of eating or drinking bhang...The habitual consumers of bhang are the up. country men, and very few of the natives.' Babu Jogendra Kishore Rai Chaudhuri, Zamindar, Ramgopalpur, District Mymensingh, says, 'Many up-country men habitually use bhang. Respectable Bengalis used to take bhang almost invariably in the Dassara and Sripanchami days, but the practice is fast dying out.' Babu Gopal Singh, Zamindar, Kumarsar, Bhagalpur, says, 'Ganja is used by the lower class of people...Bhang is taken by all the classes of people.' Mr. A. G. M. Wodschow, Assistant Manager, Indigo and Zamindari, Dumur Factory, Purnea, says, '[bhang] by all castes, and mostly by the higher class all over the Purnea and Bhagalpur Districts...Bhang.— By the better class, mostly up-country men, Brahmins and Rajputs especially; they say it is a cooling drink.' Babu Sashi Bhushan Roy, Chairman, Satkhira Municipality, District Khulna, says, 'Bhang is used in moderation by some in higher classes.' Babu Aghore Nath Banerji, Vice-Chairman, Serampore Municipality, District Hughli, says, 'Up-country people of all classes, not excepting those even of Mewar, Marwar, etc., generally, with few exceptions, drink bhang.' Rev. Prem Chand, Missionary, B. M. S., Gaya, says, 'Almost all classes of Hindus take bhang. I do not think I shall be very wide of the mark when I say that 60 per cent. of the population of Behar uses it. The percentage would be somewhat higher in Baidyanath and Gaya.' Revd. G. C. Dutt, Missionary, Khulna, says, 'Up-country people residing in this district drink bhang generally.' Babu Purnendu Narayan Sinha, Kayasth, Pleader and Zamindar, Bankipur, District Patna, says, 'Vaishnava Hindus generally eat and drink bhang. The drug is particularly a favourite with the mahajan or trading class (consisting of Agarwalas, Banias, and Marwaris). It is also largely used by other classes of Vaishnava Hindus, though more in towns than in villages. The Vaishnava Sadhus, Nanaksahis, Udasis, and Sikhs also eat and drink bhang...Bhang is chiefly used by Vaishnava Hindus, whether ascetics or family men, also generally by the mahajan classes. It is liked by those classes, as they are strictly prohibited from touching wine, and as its intoxicating effects are mild and exhilarating.' Babu Mahendra Chandra Mitra, Kayasth, Pleader, Honorary Magistrate, and Municipal Chairman, Naihati, 24-Parganas, says, 'Bhang is used almost exclusively by Hindus without distinction of classes. It is taken by them in the form of a drink, generally with the object of stimulating appetite which was weakened by indigestion or other causes...Bhang is used by sanyasis (ascetics), both eaten and drunk. The up-country durwans and up-country traders are the largest consumers. In Bengal, I may guess, the proportion is one to four thousand. By far the greater number of the drinkers of bhang consists of the Hindu sanyasis, who make it a point to drink it in pursuance of the dictates of a religious sentiment...The mendicants excepted, all other classes use it in moderation.' Babu Madhava Chandra Chatterjee, Brahmin, Pleader, District Court, Dinajpurun, says, 'like ganja-smoking, the drinking of bhang is not restricted to any particular class of people. Many respectable people drink bhang occasionally, and some respectable persons are even habitual drinkers of the drug. The worshippers of Jagannath in Orissa and the Dobeys, Chowbeys, &c., of the North-Western Provinces who make tours in different parts of Bengal are, almost without exception, habitual drinkers of bhang...' Babu Sasadhar Roy, Brahmin, Pleader and Honorary Magistrate, Rajshahi, says, 'Bhang is taken mostly on ceremonial occasions, sometimes for pleasure and in some cases for medicinal purposes.' Babu Jadunath Kanjilal, Brahmin, Pleader, Judge's Court, Hughli, says, 'Men who would not like to be known as ganjasmokers would ordinarily drink bhang.' Babu Beprodas Banerjee, Brahman, Pleader, Newspaper Editor, and Chairman, Baraset Municipality, says, 'Bhang is seldom eaten. Punjab people eat it when they cannot powder it. It is drunk in every part of India. Sepoys are specially fond of it and daily use it. In all temples dedicated to Siva bhang must be used in drinking and pouring on the head of the idol. The Maharaja of Benares gives bhang for use in the temple of Bisheshwar.' Babu Nobo Gopal Bose Rai Chowdhoory, Kayasth, Talukdar and Judge's Court Pleader (late Munsiff of Nator), Memari, Burdwan District, says, 'The up-country men, the intermediate class of people who come to this country, and the jogis and sanyasis, and those who suffer from diarrhœa, eat and drink bhang...' Babu Mohini Mohan Burdhan, Kayasth, District Government Pleader of Tippera, says, 'The use of bhang is not restricted to any particular section of the community, but the practice of taking it in the shape of confections or sweetmeats prepared with a little admixture of sugar, milk, and other edibles as well as in the form of liquid sherbets, obtains even among the higher orders of society...' Babu Tara Nath Chuckerbutty, Brahmin, Government Pleader, Faridpur, says, 'Bhang is very scarcely used for eating, but generally for drinking by a few of the upper class people...Bhang is generally used by people having bowel complaints.' Babu Jadubans Sshai, Pleader and Vice-Chairman, Arrah Municipality, says, 'Bhang is generally used in this country by all classes, to whom the use of spirituous liquors is prohibited by religion or family superstition and prejudice, such as Brahmins, Rajputs, and Bhunihars. Pandas of temples are habitual and excessive consumers of bhang. But its use is by no means restricted to any particular class, and Muhammadans, though not in the same proportion as Hindus, also use bhang, although strictly prohibited by their religion. More than a half of the adult male population in each locality use bhang.' Babu Kamala Kanta Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar and Pleader, President of the Chittagong Association, says, 'Orthodox Hindus drink bhang on the Dasami, Sripanchami and Sivaratri days. Hindustanis and Marwaries drink habitually...' Babu Nitya Nanda Roy, Teli, Merchant and Zamindar, Chittagong, says, 'People of North-Western Provinces generally use the bhang as refreshment, just as beer, claret, and cider are used in Europe. ..For excitement and intoxicating purpose low classes of people, particularly those that are living on piscatory profession and the coolies going in the hills, are addicted to smoke ganja under a notion that the use of it gives energy to work and also alleviates pain of hard work.' Babu Nobin Chandra Sarkar, Kayasth, Wholesale and retail vendor of ganja and bhang, Barisal, says, 'Bhang is drunk to a great extent by upcountry men (Deswalis) and gentlemen and middle class men who cannot afford to pay for expensive alcoholic drinks...Bhang.—(a) gentlemen who cannot pay for alcoholic drinks. (b) Up-country men are hard drinkers of bhang. (c) Owing to religious principles.' District Board, 24-Parganas (Sub-Committee), says, 'As a rule, it [ganja] is not smoked by the agricultural and the well-to-do classes in Bengal... Men from Hindustan proper living in Bengal are, as a rule, addicted to the use of bhang in various forms...It is occasionally used by Bengali gentlemen. It is sometimes used as a substitute for intoxicants.' District Board, Patna, says, 'Bhang is drunk by all classes of Hindus. It is a favourite drink with the Chowbeys, amongst Brahmins, Rajputs, Pavans, and Marwaris. ...The use of bhang is very great amongst these classes in cities and towns.' Ishan Chandra Patranavish, Bengali, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Sylhet, says, 'But the up-country men, such as Deswalis and Kayans, generally use the bhang, which they get from Calcutta.' Krishna Chandra Sanyal, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Sylhet, says, 'In Bengal the middle and upper classes generally drink bhang. In the North-Western Provinces eating of bhang pills in sweetmeat prevails. Drinking of bhang is the ordinary form of use...Upper and middle class men consume ganja and siddhi in company of friends in festivities.' Jadu Ram Barooah, Assamese Kayasth, Local Board Member; Pensioned Overseer, Public Works Department, Dibrugarh, says, 'Among Assamese in religious days, especially by Brahmins, and few of all other classes...' Colonel M. M. Bowie, Commissioner, Nerbudda Division, says, 'Here bhang is chiefly drunk by the bunnia class and most of all by the Marwaris who take it during the hot weather as a cooling drink (thandai). In Sumbalpur the brahmins, I know, use it in the same way, and I believe its use is common among brahmins in other parts of the province also.' Mr. F. C. Anderson, Officiating Commissioner, Nagpur, says, 'The drink made from foreign bhang is generally used by Marwaris, but is not confined to this class; it is used by the better classes.' Mr. A. C. Duff, Deputy Commissioner, Jubbulpore, says, 'Bhang is drunk by nearly all Marwaris of the better sort, specially in the hot weather and in the larger towns...' Mr. B. Robertson, Deputy Commissioner, Nimar, says, 'In other words, ganja is the form in which the drug is used by the lower and labouring classes, while the better classes take bhang...Bhang is used by the better classes, more especially by Marwaris, Gujaratis, and people from Northern India. It is commonly drunk. In the hot weather particularly it is used in liquid form. In the cold season it is frequently eaten with " massala" of various kinds. Condiments also enter into the composition of the emulsion which is made with bhang. It is mainly the season of the year which determines whether bhang is taken in liquid or in solid form.' Mr. H. V. Drake-Brockman, Officiating  Commissioner of Excise, Central Provinces, says, 'The chief consumers of bhang are Marwaris, some of whom drink it daily. In the hot weather the well-to-do of all except the cultivating classes take it, because it is cooling and refreshing... The Marwaris are banias of the Oswal, Agarwal, Mahesri, and Jain sects...Bhang is a luxury for the well-to do, and very little used.' Bhargow Laxmon Gadgit, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Nagpur, says, 'Bhang is used for drinking purposes by Marwaris, better classes of Hindus from NorthWestern Provinces. The men of the province, well-to-do persons, also occasionally indulge in drinking bhang, and the lower classes of the people sometimes drink bhang. This is drunk on Hindu festivals (such as Holi and Shivaratri) and sometimes on marriage occasions. It is often when young friends meet in any garden they prepare and indulge in this drink...The classes who use bhang as a drink are generally well-to-do people. It is indulged in as a luxury ; poorer people drink it as removing fatigue.' Trimbak Rao Sathe, Extra Assistant Commissioner, and Diwan of the Sonepur State, 'Among Brahmans and mahantis and such other higher classes, at the time of caste or religious festivals and feasts, bhang (kúsúmba) is prepared and given to the assembled guests before taking their food. It  is usual for the host to ask or even to press every guest, if he were very familar, to take it more and more, just as he does after-wards in the case of any delicious dish. Question 24 [oral evidence].—Most people of the higher classes in Sonepur take bhang, and most have at least tasted it.' Raghunath Rao, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Damoh, says, 'In the hot weather and in the Holi festivals bhang is generally used by all classes of people who cannot use liquor...Middle classes of people...Rich and higher classes of people...Rich people generally...Bhang drinking is more respectable than ganja smoking, just as opium eating than opium smoking.' Syed Mohamed Husain, Extra Assistant Commissioner; Diwan, Khairagarh State, says, 'Bhang is not so prevalent in the Central Provinces as in the North-Western Provinces. Its use is for the most part confined to cities and towns. Bhang is generally used by the middle classes such as the Brahmins, Chhattris, etc. The moderate use of bhang is not looked upon as a mean thing, and the Hindu religion does not forbid its use. In the hot weather people take it as a cooling drink. The upper classes use it more than any other preparation of hemp.' Ram Krishna Rao, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Bhandara, says, 'In Central Provinces about 30 per cent, of adult male population, particularly in the hot weather— (a) eat bhang 5 per cent, (b) drink bhang 25 per cent...Bhang — Well-to-do middle classes, generally Hindus.' Batuk Bharty, Superintendent of Kalahandi State, says, 'Bhang is not eaten in this State, but it is drunk. The Brahmins and other high castes drink it.' T. Goondiah, Tahsildar, Janjgir, Bilaspur District, says, 'Bhang is generally drunk by Marwari and Hindustani Brahmins in this country in summer season.' Munshi Thakht Singh, pensioned Tahsildar, Bata, District Damoh, says, 'bhang ..is drunk by all castes and by respectable persons in all places. Its use is confined to the hot weather as a cooling and refreshing beverage and as an inducer of sleep.' Vinayak Balkrishna Khare, Brahmin, Excise Daroga, Nagpur, says, 'The consumption of bhang is by no means restricted to the poor. On the other hand, it is drunk by Marwaris and banias on this side, and during the hot season by respectable high caste and educated Brahmins of the orthodox class who are restricted from taking liquors. Such a preparation is generally called " panga," meaning light drink. ... Moreover, some people are so fond among that Brahminical class that they take pride in preparing and consuming the strongest dose in other ways, namely, that the bhang patti is boiled in water in a copper pot and a couple of copper pice put into it while undergoing that process. It is then roasted in ghee and then powdered along with almond, aniseed, pepper, dry rose flowers, seed of cucumber, and all these mixed in water, or, to make it still stronger, to prepare it in milk which they call "dudhiya," and then to drink it. ..The learned Brahmins at Benares and Ujjain are noted for indulging in this drink, and through the instrumentality of the intoxication produced by it, they can repeat the Vedas without a mistake and without being fatigued...' Anandi Pershad, Excise Daroga, Hoshangabad, says, 'Persons of high caste very seldom smoke [ganja]...They use bhang to a very limited extent in large towns, such as Hoshangabad, Harda, Seoni and Sohagpur. They use it especially in the summer season. Mostly bhang is used by the Rajputana grocers, Brahmins, Marwaris, and the inhabitants of North-Western Provinces...' Munshi Mahomed Ghouse, Extra Assistant Conservator of Forests, Raipur, says, 'Bhang and ganja are the only drugs to be had in these provinces. The former is used mainly by people well-to-do, while the latter is generally taken by poor classes.' Apothecary J. Prentie, Civil Surgeon, Bhandara, says, 'Bhang—Upper and well-to-do middle classes, Government officials, shop-keepers, the largest proportion of whom are Hindus. The beverage compounded is regarded much as Europeans look on light wines, claret or table beer—is taken for similar reasons and has like effects.' Doorga Das Sen, Baidya, Assistant Surgeon, Warora, says, 'Bhang is largely used chiefly by the upper classes of the Hindu people and generally they drink it in the hot weather, mixed with some massalas or with milk and sugar, with an impression that it has a cooling and refreshing effect on the body and the mind... As stated above, bhang is chiefly used by the upper classes of the Hindu labourers, viz., Brahmins, Kshatria, etc., etc.' Muhammad Habibulla, 1st grade Hospital Assistant, Seoni, says, 'Marwaris and Purbiyas use bhang (a) in the form of sherbet to drink, and (b) in the form " majum " confection to eat.' Mir Zamin Ali, Pensioned Hospital Assistant, Jabalpur, says, 'Moderate consumers of bhang are mostly from the upper classes of the Hindus. They use it for luxurious indulgences, because they are prohibited from using liquors by their religious restrictions... Most of the rich persons use it moderately in any syrup as a cold drink.' Khushali Ram, Honorary Magistrate, Chhindwara, says, 'Members of all the lower castes smoke ganja and some of the higher castes, but among the latter is considered as a disgrace...The higher castes eat 'majum'  and 'talli hui' (as described above) and specially so at Holi time. Marwaris eat 'talli hui bhang.'' Gangadharroa Madho Chitnavis, Honorary Magistrate, Nagpur, says, 'The middle class population of Northern India, and almost all Marwaris and fasting Brahmins drink bhang. It is, as a rule, to be got at any of these houses. They use it as tea, and offer it in that light to visitors of their own class...'  Mir Imad Ali, Honorary Magistrate, Damoh, says, 'Bhang is drunk as a sherbet in the hot weather only, by respectable classes.' Seth Bachraj, Honorary Magistrate, Wardha, says, 'Bhang is eaten by all castes; but among the higher castes very few eat it. .. Of the local people of Wardha only about 5 per cent. drink bhang. They are mostly high caste men. The Marwaris of Bikanir drink it to a very large extent, and of the other Marwaris only about 10 per cent. drink it. All the five castes of Marwaris drink it to the same extent...Bhang is chiefly drunk by Benares people and Marwaris, and chiefly in the hot weather. It is used as a cooling drink, and to increase the appetite. Some people who use it to excess have no appetite without it.' Modan Mohan Seth, Honorary Magistrate, Jubbulpore, says, 'Nearly every class of people drink bhang to an extent of 90 per cent., out of which 10 per cent. are habitual drinkers.' Raghoba Mahadik, Malguzar and Honorary Magistrate, Rajim, says, 'The Marwaris drink bhang a good deal in the hot weather.' Diwan Prem Singh, Zamindar, Bilaspur District, says, 'The wealthier classes use bhang...' Lall Umed Singh, Zamindar, Bilaspur District, says, 'Bhang is only used by the wealthier classes, and is supposed to have been introduced into these provinces from the North-Western Provinces...' Pandit Narayan Rao Gobind, Brahmin, Zamindar, Hurda, says, 'The people who use ganja are not regarded with respectability, and therefore its use is generally made in secrecy... Generally the Brahmans residing in places of pilgrimage, viz., Benares, Ujjain, Mathra, Allahabad, Kanhpur, etc., and in Malwa and Bengal are addicted to use bhang. In the hot season the mahajans drink bhang and some people eat the drug as churan...' Chandi Pershad, Brahmin, Malguzar, and President, Municipal Committee, Chanda, says, 'The bhang of this district is eaten to some extent by Brahmins, Chattris, Marwaris, and Jats (from the North-Western Provinces). Low-caste people do not much use it.' Thakur Maharaj Singh, Rai Bahadur, Malguzar, Saugor, says, 'All classes more or less drink bhang, except Muhammadans: 55 per cent. of the people drink bhang... The more respectable classes use bhang; the labouring classes use ganja.' Rev. O. Lohr, Medical Missionary, Bisrampur, Raipur District, says, 'Bhang is, I believe, used by the up-country Brahmins and Banias chiefly as an aid to digestion; but only to a small extent.' Mr.Tara Dass Banerji, President, District Council, Raipur, says, 'Bhang is drunk occasionally, i.e., during the hot weather moderately by more than 50 per cent. of the respectable classes of Marwaris, and during festive occasions by about 75 per cent. of them, of whom a good third take it in large quantities and get more or less drunk. The lower classes prefer smoking it, as thereby they avoid the elaborate and somewhat expensive items of spices, sugar, and milk. .... Almost every Marwari in Raipur and elsewhere drinks bhang in his " thandai " every evening during the hot weather. Habitual bangeris prefer to take it in pills which they sometimes dry up for use during travel or where they do not wish to take the trouble of preparing it every day. A good many people belonging to the other classes drink bhang during summer evenings " to cool themselves "----" thandai." Bhang is often used in the preparation of majum, a sort of sweetmeat, which is largely consumed during festive occasions like the Holi and Diwali, and which is sold all round the year in large towns, the principal consumers being prostitutes and their visitors. Bhang is also used by native physicians—baids—as a drug in the preparation of " modaks," emulsions for bowel and nervous debility...The very poor classes rarely have anything to do with bhang. If they get it, they would smoke it, or pound it up into a bolus. It would be a sort of makeshift for ganja.' Babu Kalidas Chowdhry, Brahmin, Pleader, Hoshangabad, says, 'The Marwaris drink bhang largely...Bhang is used principally in the hot season to allay thirst and increase appetite.' Mr. J. A. Maughan, Manager, Central Provinces Collieries, Umaria, Jubbulpore District, says, 'but the higher classes use bhang. It is not common here...The higher classes are not allowed to smoke ganja, but eat or drink bhang as a luxury.' Lala Nandkeshore, Agartcal, Merchant, Banker, Contractor, Malgoozar, Honorary Magistrate, Secretary, Municipal Committee, and Member, District Council, Saugor, says, 'Marwaris and Mathra Chaubes in general, and Pandits in particular, eat and drink bhang according to their convenience.' Lala Ramshahi and Lala Sitaram,  Abkari Contractors, Nagpur, say, 'Bhang is generally used in the whole of India, but it is used much in Marwar and Northern India. .All classes of people drink it, but Marwaris and Hindustani Brahmins use it much in drinking.' Mr. J. Sturrock, Collector, Coimbatore, says, 'Maharattas, Rajputs, and Guzaratis drink bhang and call it ramarasam. The other classes eat it.' Mr. K. C. Manavedan Raja, Collector, Anantapur, says, 'Fakirs, dasaries, lingayats, boyas, weavers, and marvadies are said to both eat and drink bhang, but it is drunk more often in assemblies of fakirs and by Rajputs.' Hospital Assistant I. Parthasarathy Chetty, Penukonda, Anantapur District, says, 'Bhang, better known by the name of rama-rasam in the Telugu-speaking country, is used but rarely almost by every class of people, from the highest Brahman to the lowest Pariah. Muhammadans, especially fakirs, use this. Generally this preparation is made use of by people clustering themselves into pleasure parties, in which will be found also refined Hindus who loathe the name of intoxicating liquors. I came across such parties in Uriya country, Ganjam district. Rajputs and Mahrattas use the drug in this form very largely, and, it is said, specially during the Kama feast.' Sri Vasudeva Rajamani Rajah Deo, Kshatria, Zamindar of Mandasa, Ganjam District, says, 'In the Puri district half of the Brahmans, etc., drink bhang ; but I cannot say what portion of people in different castes eat or drink bhang.'Sagi Rama Sastry, Brahmin, Inamdar and Native Doctor, Rajahmundry, Godavari District, says, 'Men of all castes drink bhang. The proportion is 25 per cent.' Rev. W. V. Higgins, Missionary, Parlakimedi, Ganjam District, says, 'But bhang is expensive, and the former classes do not use it so much...The rich or well-to-do use the bhang for drinking purposes. The Uriya people, especially Brahmins, use the bhang...' Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, 'As for bhang: (1) amongst those whose habit of life is sedentary, and whose work requires long continued mental application, some are said to be addicted to the habit. (2) The pundits, who ape the fashions of Benares, the great religious centre of all India, are said to use it to a limited extent.' Hon'ble A. Sabapathy Moodelliar, Rai Bahadur, Merchant, Bellary, says, 'Moderate consumers are generally well-to do people and are of some respectability;...Class in the above use ganja as a luxury with a view to be able to eat and drink well and sumptuously.'  Mr. F. S. P. Lely, Collector of Surat, says, 'Bhang is chiefly drunk by goldsmiths (Sonis), Jains, Brahmins...Muhammadans and many castes of Hindus are led to ganja or bhang by having to abstain from alcohol from religious scruples.' Mr. H. Woodward, Collector, Kaira, Gujarat, says, 'Bhang is drunk by all classes of the population in a less or greater degree, specially in the hot season. It has refreshing and stimulating properties, and is imbibed at convivial meetings, as Europeans use tea, by the well-to-do classes.' Mr. C. G. Dodgson, Assistant Magistrate and Collector, Khandesh, says, 'The broad distinction between the use of ganja and bhang is that the former is chiefly confined to the poorer and lower classes of society.' Rao Bahadur Bhimbhai Kirpa Ram, Brahmin, Huzur Deputy Collector of Surat, says, 'Bhang is drunk by well-to-do Hindus, a few Musalmans and Parsis.' Khan Bahadur Dadabhai Deenshah, Parsi, Huzur Deputy Collector and Magistrate, 1st Class, Kaira, says, 'All classes of people more or less drink bhang during the hot season as a cool beverage ; but in the districts of Ahmedabad and Kaira its use is not so general as in the districts of Broach and Surat. Well-to-do people use it in larger numbers than the poorer classes, because bhang drink is a little expensive when compared with ganja smoking.' Mr. J. F. Fernandez, Retired Deputy Collector and City Magistrate, Ahmedabad, says, 'As regards eating [bhang], the use of the extract from bhang drawn in ghi and mixed up with poppy seed, etc. (vide paragraph VI, appendix A), is confined to an infinitesimally small section of the population, and that among the rich and well-to-do people.' Mr. G. P. Millet, Divisional Forest Officer, West Thana, Thana, says, 'Most well-to-do people of all classes drink bhang, principally in the hot weather, and throughout the Deccan.' Ganesh Krishna Garde, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Poona City, says, 'Here, as well as in Northern India, bhang drinking is not looked upon so disreputable as ganja or charas smoking and so it finds favour with higher classes.' Mr. Purbhuram Jeewanram, Nagar Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Bombay, says, 'Sadhus and men of the lower class and poor men use ganja...Brahmins, Ksbatryas and Vaishyas, both rich and poor, use bhang...Bhang is generally drunk ; but it is eaten when it is inconvenient to prepare the drink. In the hot weather in hot climates all classes drink bhang. Scholars and priests, who are not allowed to use liquor as a stimulant, freely drink bhang. Dealers in precious stones, pearls and jewels drink bhang, as they consider the drink helps them in their examination of these articles. In the Bombay presidency the jewellers and dealers in precious stones and pearls, who are mostly shrawak bauias, and originally from Surat, are habitual moderate consumers of bhang. Babus from Bengal and scholars and religious preachers, mostly high-caste Brahmins, are also habitual moderate consumers of bhang. Habitual excessive consumers of bhang will be found among the Brahmins, who perform religious rites in the temples and houses of the people. Occasional moderate bhang drinking is indulged in by men of all classes, high and low, rich and poor, without exception.' Desaibhai Kalidas, Brahmin (Khedaval), Government Pleader and Public Prosecutor, Kaira, says, 'The three higher classes, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, look down upon these practices [of ganja smoking]; and those who use ganja or charas are hated by the public...As there is no objection to the use of bhang, it is capable of being used, and is in fact used, by those that have a taste for it from all the four classes — Brahmins, Kshatryas, Vaishyas, and Sudras. Bhang is greatly used in drinking in Kashi (Benares), Kashmir, Nepal, Mathura, Ajodhya, Hardwar, and Prayag. In Gujarat, people in Surat, Broach, and Baroda, also use it for drinking in the summer season as a cooling beverage...The sadhus, etc., do not as a rule use bhang as they use ganja. A great portion of the sanyasis, those belonging to the fourth state intended for a Hindu householder, drink bhang. In Chandod and Karnali these live in great numbers...Bhang drinkers belong to all the classes, high and low, but the number is going down. Many addicted to it begin by using it as a cooling beverage in the hot season, and by constant use in company become victims of it. In feasts and friendly or marriage dinner parties, it is customary to prepare a mild bhang drink for amusement and for being able to do full justice to the dinner expected. Sanyasis use bhang both as a cooling drink and for the purpose of concentration in study and meditation. A great portion of Shastris (Pandits) also drink bhang as a help to the memory and concentration. The zaveris (goldsmiths, those who deal in gold, and jewels, and pearls, etc,) always take bhang in order to be able to accurately value their articles of trade.' Khan Bahadur Kadirdad Khan Gul Khan, C.I.E., Deputy Collector, Naushahro Sub-division, says, 'Bhang is eaten in the shape of majum only in large cities and towns by very few people who are rich ; but its drinking is extended over large cities and towns as well as the mufassal with this exception that whereas in large cities and towns the proportion of drinkers may safely be estimated at 25 per cent.,...Charas and ganja are smoked by people of very low class and inferior habits, but bhang is taken by all classes, beginning with princes, nobles, merchants, spiritual leaders, ending with the poorest labourer and the beggar. The habit of using bhang is acquired by associating with bhang drinkers.' Dr. S. M. Kaka, Medical Officer of Health, Karachi, says, 'The consumers of all the hemp drugs are derived from the poorer classes mainly. Bhang is indulged in by the rich.' Mahomed Laik, Mukhtarkar of Hyderabad, says, 'Besides sanyasis, nangas, suthrias, kaheris and other fakirs smoke them, and they belong to low classes of people...But bhang is drunk by almost all classes of people, except Europeans, Parsis, and Boras..' G. V. Kot, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Amraoti, says, 'The smokers are generally of the lowest grades of society and the respectable who have been addicted to smoking are generally through contact or association with the low, or occasionally the habit has been induced to allay pain or infirmity. Bhang eating or drinking is more prevalent in the respectable than ganja smoking, and this custom has taken root on account of its connection with religious ideas.' G. S. Khaperde, Brahmin, Pleader, Amraoli, says, 'Marwaris, some Upper India men, fakirs, udasis, and gosains drink bhang. They generally drink it in the evening outside the town in some garden or other place where water is fresh and abundant. They drink it after all the day's work is over... These are all generally good and law-abiding people. Some of them are respectable.' 

If the poor working classes got their hands on bhang, they would smoke it as ganja rather than eat it or drink it. Adhar Singh Gour, Kshattri, Barrister-at-law, Hoshangabad, says, 'Bhang is consumed generally by well-to-do people. Chaubes of Mathura and Marwaris seem to patronize it particularly. It is more largely consumed during the hot months, as it is believed to be cooling and digestive. Poor men and men of business do not, for one thing, patronize this bhang, as it requires quite one hour's time before it can be made; whereas ganja ball can be prepared for the chillum (pipe) in about one-fourth the time; indeed it can be made while the maker is attending to his usual work...' Mr.Tara Dass Banerji, President, District Council, Raipur, says, 'Bhang is drunk occasionally, i.e., during the hot weather moderately by more than 50 per cent. of the respectable classes of Marwaris, and during festive occasions by about 75 per cent. of them, of whom a good third take it in large quantities and get more or less drunk. The lower classes prefer smoking it, as thereby they avoid the elaborate and somewhat expensive items of spices, sugar, and milk...The very poor classes rarely have anything to do with bhang. If they get it, they would smoke it, or pound it up into a bolus. It would be a sort of makeshift for ganja.' 

Alcohol

Alcohol, in its distilled form, was an introduction of the Europeans in India. Till the arrival of western alcohol, Indians mostly consumed fermented alcohol as wines or toddies. Alcohol, in its distilled form, had already been used for centuries in Europe. It had led large numbers to addiction, death, violence and insanity. But alcohol was a staple for the European, especially in its distilled form. The working classes in Europe mostly drank the fermented drinks - beer and wine. The upper classes in Europe were however the chief votaries of distilled alcohol, and many of them had built huge business empires through the revenue that they earned from distilled alcohol. To expand their businesses to India, which until the 17th century had been arguably the wealthiest nation in the world, was most important for these businessmen who dealt in alcohol, and their friends among the European politicians. Among the first things that the British administration started looking at was the regulation and reduction of the use of cannabis - as ganja, bhang, majum and charas - and fermented wines, and toddies by the local population. In the half dozen centuries preceding the 17th century, the Muslim rulers of India had more or less kept away from serious efforts to curb cannabis and fermented drinks, as these Muslim rulers were not in the business of distilled alcohol, unlike the new European rulers who started taking control in the 17th century, ably aided by India's own upper classes and castes. The introduction of distilled alcohol, however, initially only recruited new customers primarily from India's upper classes since it was far too expensive for the middle class and the poor working classes that constituted the majority of the Indian population. Besides this, for many Indians, religion prohibited the use of alcohol. For the working and labouring classes, it was most probably the proven efficacy of ganja, the expensiveness of alcohol, and the very poor ability of distilled alcohol to meet the needs of these classes that made these classes continue with the usage of ganja, even as the ruling classes mounted up the pressure to convert the working classes in India to become distilled alcohol drinkers. The upper classes were however taking to distilled alcohol like fish to water, always ready to imitate those whom they wished to be like, and have as many drugs as they possibly could lay their hands on without dying in the process. It was probably a matter of pride for the upper classes to boast in their social circles that they were now like the British, much like the pigs in George Orwell's Animal Farm. From the narrative, one would think that distilled alcohol had always been around, and that the working classes were choosing ganja over it as a behavioral change in recent times, when in fact it was the distilled alcohol that was the new entrant brought in by the Europeans among an Indian society that had smoked ganja for thousands of years. But then for an Indian upper class that was itself formed by people who had come to India in the recent past, such things may have not been so obvious or would have escaped their limited intellectual capacities or , as is most likely, they did not really care. Mr. L. P. Shirres, Magistrate and Collector of Midnapur, says, 'Ganja is used by the fishermen and the lower classes generally, partly, no doubt, because it is a less expensive habit than liquor or opium.' Chunder Narain Singh, Kayasth, Deputy Collector, at present employed as Personal Assistant to the Commissioner of the Bhagalpur Division, says, 'Ganja is smoked principally by the lower classes and by a limited section of the middle class, whose religious prejudice is a bar to their indulging in alcohol.' Babu Prokash Chunder Roy, Excise Deputy Collector, Patna, says, 'They [the castes which use ganja] are mostly poor men and day-labourers, who either from religious prejudices or on account of want of sufficient means cannot use liquor.' Babu Kali Das Mukerji, Sub-Deputy Collector and Superintendent of Distillery, Serampore, Hughli, says, 'The Hindu friars and jogis are said to use it to help them in their religious contemplation by increasing the powers of concentration. Specially from this point of view siddhi is preferable to liquor.' Mr. F. H. Tucker, District Superintendent of Police, Dinajpur, says, 'In Behar ganja is smoked by the Brahmins and Rajputs, who object to taking liquor.' Babu Mathura Mohan Sirkar, Inspector of Police, Jhenida, District Jessore, says, 'Several middle-class people, who could afford to pay for drinking before, owing to backward circumstances or for want of means, when they become poor, generally become ganja smokers or bhang drinkers at last, and lead a life of misery.' Babu Pratapchandra Ghosha, Registrar of Calcutta, says, 'In Calcutta, however, within the last few years, the use of this resin is losing ground amongst the Babus who are seen to take to spirituous liquors...' Assistant Surgeon Devendranath Roy, Brahmin, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence, Campbell Medical School, Calcutta, says, 'Hemp drugs, being cheaper than country wine, are preferred.' Pyari Sankar Dass Gupta, Baidya, Medical Practitioner, Secretary, Bogra Medical Society, Bogra, says, 'People who have not means to procure wine or ganja, or have some religious prejudices to the former, eat and drink bhang. Those who were formerly addicted to wine or ganja, but have left them owing to disease or poverty, use this.' Babu Surendra Nath Pal Chowdhury, Zamindar, Ranaghat, District Nadia, says, 'Bengalis also, to some extent, eat or drink it [bhang], either for medicinal purposes or as an intoxicating drug, instead of alcohol...' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'Bhang is generally used by the classes to whom the use of spirituous liquors is prohibited on religious grounds, such as Brahmins, Kshetriyas, and other higher castes.' Babu Purnendu Narayan Sinha, Kayasth, Pleader and Zamindar, Bankipur, District Patna, says, 'Vaishnava Sadhus, Nanaksahi Sadhus, Udasi Sadhus—in fact, all classes of ascetics— who do not use alcohol, generally smoke ganja, excepting the follower of Guru Govind (the tenth Sikh Guru)... Ganja and charas.—The consumers are chiefly those classes of ascetics who are prohibited from drinking wine, and who are not prohibited, like the followers of Guru Govind, from smoking...It is liked by those classes, as they are strictly prohibited from touching wine, and as its intoxicating effects are mild and exhilarating.' Babu Nobin Chandra Sarkar, Kayasth, Wholesale and retail vendor of ganja and bhang, Barisal, says, 'Bhang is drunk to a great extent by upcountry men (Deswalis) and gentlemen and middle class men who cannot afford to pay for expensive alcoholic drinks. Ganja.—(a) middle class men who cannot afford to pay for expensive drinks (alcoholic)...' Raghunath Rao, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Damoh, says, 'ganja smoking .. is, however, greatly used by those classes of people more or less who cannot use liquor, but, generally speaking, the bairagis, fakirs, and lower classes of labourers greatly use ganja all over India. I think the proportion of ganja smokers is 10 per cent, of the entire population...In the hot weather and in the Holi festivals bhang is generally used by all classes of people who cannot use liquor...' Mr.Tara Dass Banerji, President, District Council, Raipur, says, 'Wines and spirits were forbidden by the Hindu Shastras, and their use involved loss of caste. Pressure from within and without have alike contributed to the weakening of this sentiment. A good many of the castemen, as formerly would have taken to bhang and ganja, now drink wines and spirits. The lower classes, who imitate their betters, are gradually taking to arrack, gin, and cheap brandy.' Rao Sahib Rangrao Harry Khisty, Pleader, Bhandara, says, 'Powars and Lodhis partly for the above reason and partly because it is not considered disgraceful as opium or liquor.' Mr. L. C. Miller, Acting Collector of Trichinopoly, says, 'Generally...few others who cannot afford to purchase liquor smoke ganja...The people are of the lower classes.' Mr. E. L. Vaughan, Acting Sub-Collector, Dindigul, says, 'The lower orders form the main class, although consumers may be found among all classes; they want something strong after their daily labours; and as the prices of alcoholic drinks are becoming prohibitive, the poorer classes take lahiam.' Mr. J. H. Merriman, Deputy Commissioner of Salt and Abkari, Central Division, says, 'All the poorer classes, but chiefly Muhammadans and religious mendicants. ..who can't afford more expensive stimulant, such as arrack and opium.' N. Soondramiah , Brahmin, Deputy Tahsildar, Ootacamund, says, 'It is said that those who are not given up to alcoholic liquors use ganja.' Mr. G. Cloney, Superintendent of Jail, Tanjore, says, 'The price of the drug as compared with that of the cheapest of spirituous or fermented liquors is one of the chief reasons that leads those desirous of intoxication to resort to the practice.' Rev. J. Desigachari, Missionary , Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Badvel, Cuddapah District, says, 'Those who cannot afford to spend money on liquors are compelled to go in for these. Smoking these drugs induces more intoxication than valuable liquors.' Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, 'although, from any information gleaned about these, I am not convinced that the habit is at all general or even noticeably prominent as are the habits of liquordrinking and opium-using.' Very Rev. A. Chelvum, Roman Catholic Diocese, Vizagapatam, says, 'The consumption of the hemp drugs in Vizagapatam town is limited to very few people. Opium and country liquor are indulged in to a much larger extent. The hemp drugs are taken by Musalmans and bairagis and a few people from Orissa.' Mr. F. S. P. Lely, Collector of Surat, says, 'Muhammadans and many castes of Hindus are led to ganja or bhang by having to abstain from alcohol from religious scruples.' Mr. W. Almon, Assistant Collector, Abkari Department, Bombay, says, 'I believe that bhang drinkers will be found chiefly among those classes of the people to whom the use of alcohol is prohibited...I would say...religious prohibition to the use of alcoholic drinks ;...want of money to purchase liquors in the case of very poor people...,—are the chief circumstances which lead to the practice of consuming hemp drugs.' Desaibhai Kalidas, Brahmin (Khedaval), Government Pleader and Public Prosecutor, Kaira, says, 'But the use of ganja is on the decrease in Gujarat owing to the spread of education, and the slow, but steady, growth of a healthy public opinion...Among the latter alcohol is also to some extent substituted among the lower grades of society.' Mr. C. E. Hardie, District Forest Officer, Manantoddy, North Malabar, says, 'It is chiefly smoked, being less expensive and easily prepared for the purpose...' Rev. J. Desigachari, Missionary , Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Badvel, Cuddapah District, says, 'Those who cannot afford to spend money on liquors are compelled to go in for these. Smoking these drugs induces more intoxication than valuable liquors.'

Tobacco

Tobacco was also introduced in India around the 17th century, soon after its discovery among Native Americans, if the records are to be believed. Until tobacco was introduced by the Europeans, Indians essentially smoked cannabis across the length and breadth of the country, as they had been doing for thousands of years. Like alcohol, many rich European businessmen and politicians had a significant stake in the tobacco business, and wished to penetrate and expand into the vast and wealthy Indian market. The harms of tobacco were almost unknown until the end of the 19th century so it was promoted as a safe and refined alternate to the evil ganja. Never mind the fact that tobacco only provided a minuscule fraction of the intoxication or medical benefits of ganja, forcing a person to smoke 10 or 20 tobacco cigarettes where one ganja beedi sufficed. This may have seemed as a positive for the tobacco businessmen, i.e. getting a person to switch from ganja to tobacco meant that the former ganja smoker would smoke much more tobacco than a person who had not smoked ganja before, thus adding to revenue and profits. The Indian upper classes, as usual took the lead in mimicking their European rulers. Together the Indian upper classes and British administration created the narrative that tobacco was a more healthy, and refined pursuit than ganja smoking. We do not find too much mention of tobacco in the Hemp Commission's report, but one witness, Desaibhai Kalidas, Brahmin (Khedaval), Government Pleader and Public Prosecutor, Kaira, says, 'But the use of ganja is on the decrease in Gujarat owing to the spread of education, and the slow, but steady, growth of a healthy public opinion. Native-made tobacco cigarettes are greatly in demand now-a-days, and that is the fashion of the time among the common people.'

Opium

The British developed a taste for opium, which is supposed to have emerged from Greece, much before they came into contact with ganja. For the British, opium was much more desirable to ganja. Having become addicted to opium after prolonged use, and having converted the Chinese to also become opium addicts, the British got their opium cultivated in China, which they carried back and sold in Europe and the Americas. Penetrating the Indian market with opium, where cannabis was so extensively established for thousands of years, and where the majority of Indians revered Siva, the great god of ganja, was not an easy task. To convert Indians to the use of opium - which was much more expensive being foreign to India, but also brought much larger revenue margins than ganja which was endemic to India - ganja had to be first removed from the picture. Initially, most opium users in the region were located in Burma (present day Myanmar) where ganja was completely prohibited, and parts of neighbouring Assam, as well as Gujarat. Assam seems to have been one of the early converts to opium, possibly due to its proximity to the opium trade between Britain and China. Mr. E. A. Gait, Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Assam, says 'Ganja is smoked mainly by foreigners, immigrants from Bengal and the North-Western Provinces. The indigenous inhabitants of the Assam Valley (including Goalpara) do not smoke ganja...The Assamese of these districts take opium principally and the hill tribes take spirits.' Mr. J. J. S. Driberg, Commissioner of Excise and Inspector General of Police and Jails, says, 'In the Assam Valley districts consumption of ganja is confined almost entirely to foreigners, garden coolies, carters, traders, sepoys, etc. In the Surma Valley it is used by the population more generally...[oral evidence].—The Assamese rarely use ganja. They are all opium-eaters.' Mr. G. Gordon, Deputy Commissioner, Goalpara, says, 'Mostly foreigners, such as what are known as Bengali coolies...I cannot say for certain that Assamese labourers do not take ganja. But I believe that they take opium much more than ganja. I speak of the true Assamese. The people in this (Goalpara) district are not pure Assamese. We have a very mixed population.' Surgeon-Major J. W. U. Macnamara, Civil Surgeon and Superintendent, Lunatic Asylum, Tezpur, says, 'The use of ganja, with few exceptions, is confined to the lower (not necessarily the poorer) classes. ..The greatest consumption is on tea gardens and among foreigners.' Mr. H. G. Prendergast, District Superintendent of Police, Kistna, says, 'Opium is very largely consumed in the Agency tracts, and the same people are not likely to consume opium as well as hemp. In these tracts the respectable people take opium and the disreputable classes ganja. As a rule those who live by labour do not use ganja. In the Northern Sircars generally ganja is consumed by poor people who are also respectable, as well as by some rajas and respectable Muhammadans, and sepoys and military pensioners.' Slowly, the Indian upper classes in Bengal were converted over to opium, the cultivation, sale and use of ganja was curbed, prices of ganja were raised, etc., so as to make more Indians use opium instead, along with distilled alcohol and tobacco. It appears that there were pockets of opium cultivators and users in the southern hilly parts of India. These, I believe, to have been nurtured by British settlers who cultivated tea in these regions and got their workers to grow opium instead of the traditional ganja that the local tribes were accustomed to. Surgeon-Major G. L. Walker, Civil Surgeon, Ootacamund, says, 'The Badagas and Koters, the chief cultivating tribes of the Nilgiris, do not cultivate nor use hemp; they (especially their women) indulge freely in opium, but not ganja.' 

But even with the introduction of opium, and its increasing use and promotion by the Indian upper classes and British rulers, the working classes continued to use ganja, quite obviously because ganja was far superior, used for thousands of years and far more affordable. The harms of opium were quite well known among the British even then, but it is highly unlikely that they would have made this known to the Indian public whom they were trying to convert to opium over ganja.  Surgeon-Lieutenant-Colonel A.H. Leaping-Well, District Surgeon, Vizagapatam, says, 'I have never been asked for ganja by a prisoner ; but I have been repeatedly asked for opium by those who use that drug. I do not think that the failure to ask for ganja is due to any shame, for these 18 evinced no such feeling. I know of no reason why they should not ask for it. Some opium eaters have been discovered who have never asked for the drug ; but some confirmed opium eaters give great trouble. 1 conclude that the ganja habit can be much more easily broken...I see nothing whatever to connect the crimes in any of these eases with flue ganja habit. Several are old offenders, and all these told me that their first offences were committed before they took to ganja. I asked all these criminals as to how much they used. They all denied becoming silly or senseless from ganja. None of them admitted taking ganja to excess. I used to think I could pick out an opium smoker by his appearance ; but recent inquiries have shown me that there are men of perfectly healthy appearance who confess to the habit. As to ganja, it was never brought to my notice at all. So far as I am aware, there is nothing special about the gauja smoker's physical appearance. Before I received the questions issued by the Commission I paid no attention to ganja. I did not know it was a general habit to use ganja. I had heard it was used in the hills, but did not know it was used here. I had, of course, no idea as to what would be moderate or excessive use.'  Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, 'although, from any information gleaned about these, I am not convinced that the habit is at all general or even noticeably prominent as are the habits of liquordrinking and opium-using...' Abarao Jauroo, Maratha, Karbhari Patel and Special Magistrate, Khamgaon, Akola District, says, 'Also those who can't afford to drink or take opium, smoke ganja.' Mr. H. G. Batten, Deputy Commissioner, Mergui, says, 'Smoking of ganja is looked upon by respectable Siamese in much the same light as opium smoking is regarded by Burmans, and is chiefly confined to the lower classes. Wild hemp grows all over the district in open. spaces, but is not used; the leaves of the wild. variety having neither strength nor flavour.'

Today, with the persistent efforts of the Indian upper classes working for their British masters, after 78 years of so-called Indian independence, India is the world's largest legal producer of opium, supplying it to Britain and Europe. Indian pharma companies churn out opioids that have addicted large numbers of the Indian population, besides the poor in countries as far away as in Africa. Heroin, smuggled in from India's western borders, has ravaged the youth of Punjab, Harayana and Punjab, even as it makes its way to the big Indian cities of Mumbai and Delhi. The Indian government, lead by a man from Gujarat, works closely with the legal and illegal opium market, to spread its usage and make the upper classes richer. The current Assam government is one of the strongest allies of the Union government. Manipur has been ripped apart due to conflict over the cultivation of opium, but it as masked as ethnic conflict by the state government that is also favourable to the Union government. India supplies arms and weapons of war to Myanmar, so that the military regime there can suppress the people there and retain control over the flow of opium. Ganja, the herb of the working classes, has been crushed and all efforts are made to ensure that it does not see the light of legality. Abuse of opioids and opioid addiction is a growing epidemic among the Indian middle class, including the youth. The entire upper class apparatus in the India - the judiciary, executive, legislature, media, businesses, education system, medical industry, etc., etc., work hand in hand to ensure that the Indian working classes stay on the killing road, even as they toil for the rich...The upper classes do not miss an opportunity, however, to tell the people that they work for the people. The gullible people who put them there believe what they say and keep the ganja of Siva, the medicine of the working and labouring classes, in jail...

What complete legalization of cannabis means for the class and caste systems

Some people talk about the use of intoxicants and stimulants as if it was something peculiar to India. Every nation and society uses intoxicants and stimulants, and even other species besides humans, such as elephants, primates, etc. Beer drinking in western societies among the working classes does not even come up as a subject of debate. If the upper classes in these societies were to even contemplate the banning of beer among the working classes in these societies, they would face swift retribution and probably cease to exist altogether as a class itself. But India's poor working and labouring classes are mild mannered and peaceloving because they smoke ganja instead of drinking alcohol. This is one of the prime reasons why the upper classes and castes here have managed to do something like banning ganja, comparable to banning beer in western societies, given the scale of ganja usage by the majority of the people of this country who constitute the working and labouring classes. Mr. H. Woodward, Collector, Kaira, Gujarat, says, 'The people of a country like India must have stimulants. The form of the stimulant chosen will depend on a variety of circumstances, not the least important being the means of the consumer. Physical aches and pains, mental depression, general joylessness of life among the more indigent classes, the force of bad example, are all incentives to get temporary rest and oblivion.'  Mr. W. Almon, Assistant Collector, Abkari Department, Bombay, says, 'I would say (1) that the desire for an intoxicant of some kind, which is a pretty general feeling among all races ; (2) religious prohibition to the use of alcoholic drinks ; (3) association with hemp drug consumers ; (4) want of money to purchase liquors in the case of very poor people ; and (5) the use of a hemp drug as a medicinal agent, — are the chief circumstances which lead to the practice of consuming hemp drugs.' Ganesh Krishna Garde, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Poona City, says, 'The habits of life or circumstances which mainly lead to the practice may be summed up in the following few words:— love of intoxication, fashion of imitation, want of education, a wearied brain and body in the artisans and working classes..., the enervating and depressing effect of the parching sun in Northern India,...: all these, either separately or combined, lead people to resort to these narcotics.'

In his book 1984, George Orwell wrote that the only way for the existing class structure - where the ruling elites, upper classes and upper castes oppress the majority of the world - can be overturned, is if the working classes (the "proles" as he called them) can rise up and secure their rights to equality, health and freedom. The inability of the world's working classes to do so until now has been primarily because when they have tried, they have used the same methods as the ruling upper classes and elites - greed; wealth; violence; divisiveness on the basis of caste, creed, race, color of skin; misinformation; etc., - to try and establish their own rights. This is bound to failure because the upper classes and upper castes are masters of these methods, and those who wish to overturn this structure cannot be like them. The upper classes and castes have been able to buy up every attempt by the world's working classes to make the world a better place. The working classes have also severely lacked a vision of how a world in which things are different can look like, as they have been conditioned so long that they cannot see anything beyond the class and caste structure. The working classes have also not had a unity of purpose when they seek to make things better for themselves. The working classes need to have higher ideals than that of the ruling upper classes and castes. They need to recognize that only with contentment, spirituality, unity, love, peace, consideration for other living beings and nature, sustainable living, equality and wisdom, among other things, can we make the world a better place. This is the most important activity that humans need to pursue collectively, as the existing structure pushes us at every increasing speed to the death of all life forms on earth through the greed of humans.

Cannabis offers a clear vision of what a world that is not completely skewed in favor of the upper classes and castes looks like. Cannabis provides a clear solution to many of the problems that afflict the world today - health, crime, sustainable livelihoods, lack of spirituality, the wealth gap, and possibly the biggest problem of all , climate change. Cannabis offers a single mission that can unite the working classes of the world, an objective and purpose to make their own lives better. The complete legalization of cannabis everywhere, and in every way, is the most potent method of bringing about a change for the better and for overturning the current oppression of the rest of the world by its ruling upper classes and castes. With complete legalization of cannabis, every individual everywhere in the world will be free to grow as much cannabis as the individual wants. The individual can be free to use cannabis however he or she wants - for medicine, for intoxication, for sustainable livelihood, for nutrition, to share with others, or whatever the individual likes. This will free the world's working classes from the suffering that they are currently undergoing. Those who wish to be independent entrepreneurs and agriculturists can achieve this through cannabis. It will enable wealth distribution in much more equitable and sustainable ways. It will create vast new sustainable industries to replace the current industries that are destroying the planet. It will bring about an intellectual and spiritual revolution where more human beings use their minds and bodies for the collective good of all, rather than focusing on only their own selfish interests. It will bring increased health to the world's majority, who suffer silently today, at affordable or no cost. It will provide intoxication to vast numbers of people in the world who now live in hell, enabling them to experience the world for what it is - a mystical beautiful paradise which is nothing short of a miracle. The upper classes and castes will oppose this with all their might, as it threatens their way of life. It will challenge the upper classes and castes to evolve from their infantile ways to that of mature human beings capable of living as guardians of this beautiful paradise that we live in... 

The current upper classes and castes fear cannabis legalization because they believe that it will dislodge them from their positions of wealth and superiority. It is true that cannabis legalization completely across the world will transform the world. But not in the ways that the current ruling classes fear and would like to portray it where the result is a world of anarchy, chaos and mayhem. What will happen with complete cannabis legalization is most probably that the current structure of priest-king-businessman-worker will still remain, but new elements will get added to the structure. There will be an increase in the wisdom, empathy and effectiveness of the structure. With the increased intelligence, good health and spirituality that cannabis brings to the system, the priest will become spiritual, the king will become wise, the businessman will become empathetic and ecologically conscious, and the worker will become stronger and more creative. Cannabis will enable all the elements of the class and caste system to become more aware of the interconnectedness of all things on earth, and aware of all living beings on earth as the eternal spirit in its various forms. Cannabis will help the priest to become one with god. It will help the king to make laws that have the greatest good of the greatest numbers (of all beings, not just humans) in mind. It will help the businessman to engage in businesses that are sustainable and beneficial to all life on earth and not destructive. It will help the worker to be artist and scientist, using skills and abilities in the most creative and efficient ways that bring the greatest joy to the greatest numbers (of all beings, not just humans). Cannabis will expand the human mind to consider not just the individual self, or the individual tribe or nation but the entire world when it ideates and acts. Cannabis will narrow the wealth gap between the upper classes and lower classes. Cannabis will narrow the differences between the upper castes and lower castes. It will enable those with merit and skills to move up the class hierarchies based on their effort and skills. Cannabis will raise the maturity levels of all humans so that every person is free to do the work they love, eat or drink the food the love, use or not use the intoxicants of their choice, worship or not worship the gods of their choice, follow the culture that they love and generally become free...As many wise men have said, 'God is free'. God does not belong to any class or caste. Cannabis does not belong to any class or caste...We need to become truly free as humans to reach the maturity as a species... 

In summary

Of all that the upper classes and castes took away, what hurt the lower classes and castes in India, and other cannabis using nations, the most was the prohibition of ganja. It was the medicinal herb that strengthened their bodies, enabling them to do the crushing labour that was demanded of them, that made them content wherever they were, and with whatever they had. It was the herb that they used to stay healthy and go back to work the next day. The upper classes replaced ganja with their own poisons - opium, alcohol and tobacco - poisons that the upper classes were themselves addicted to and which they desired to sell to the lower classes and castes in order to become more wealthy, and in order to gain more control over the working classes. The upper classes and castes created the myths that those who used ganja did so for pleasure, that they were lazy, idle and criminals. They created the myth that ganja caused insanity, and that it was addictive and harmful for the body. The fact was that for the working classes, ganja was medicine and intoxicant much needed to undergo the physical exertions, exposure to elements and obtain relief from the pain and fatigue of their work. Ganja warded off many illnesses. It improved digestion and sleep. It enabled the working classes to stay content and happy despite the pain and suffering of their lives. It was actually the upper classes who used ganja, charas and bhang for pleasure, who led sedentary lazy lives of excess. For the upper classes and castes, cannabis was just one among their numerous drugs which included alcohol, tobacco and opium. In addition to creating the myth that ganja was an evil drug that only the lower classes and castes smoked for pleasure and sin, the upper classes and castes created the myth that bhang was an entirely different drug, a medicinal safe drug sanctioned by religion which educated respectable persons regularly had. Bhang is nothing but ganja eaten or drunk rather than smoked. The upper classes and castes wanted to avoid detection by their own peers when they consumed ganja, as they feared that they would be lose their social status as a result of the myths that they themselves created. So they gave it a new name, bhang, and ate or drank it. The upper classes and castes also started adding various expensive ingredients to their bhang - such as nuts, spices, milk, etc., - ingredients that the poor working classes could hardly afforded. With these modifications to bhang, the upper classes and castes further reinforced the myth that ganja and bhang were two different drugs, that bhang was respectable, medicinal and healthy, and that ganja was harmful, and disrespectable. The upper classes and castes gradually increased the price of ganja and introduced regulations to make it scarce among the working classes, while they themselves enjoyed it freely. Slowly, laws were created where anybody from the working classes found growing, using, or in possession of ganja were arrested and imprisoned. The plant was destroyed wherever it was found. The myth was created that the upper classes and castes used cannabis as medicine, while the lower classes and castes used cannabis for recreation, when in fact, it was the other way around. Having banned the herb so that it became inaccessible to the working classes, the upper classes and castes continued to access it and enjoy it, paying huge prices to procure it from the illegal black market that grew greatly due to this. Many of the upper classes and castes themselves got into the black market trade of cannabis and became rich in the process. As the sufferings of the world increased, and the accessibility of cannabis more difficult, and the cost of cannabis became more expensive, the upper classes and castes in some places decided that the use of cannabis as medicine was legal, whereas the use of cannabis for recreation was illegal. Cannabis as medicine was priced so high that only the upper classes and castes could afford it. So, they continued to now legally and illegally use cannabis for recreation, calling it medical use, whereas the working classes continued to be deprived of their medicine, in addition to the dangerous tobacco, alcohol, opium and synthetic pharmaceutical medicine being too expensive for them. Today, the world's upper classes and elites continue to have access to cannabis, being able to afford it as legal medicine that they certify themselves as eligible for, or as an illegal drug that they procure from the black market at exorbitant costs. This is in addition to all the other drugs that the upper classes and castes have at their disposal - cocaine, heroin, alcohol, synthetic pharmaceutical drugs, methamphetamine, tobacco, etc. As for the world's majority - its working classes a.k.a the lower classes and castes - they continue to toil to make the upper classes and castes more wealthy and powerful, doing so without any medicine or intoxicant to relieve their suffering and pain...

When the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission of 1894-95 did its study, all the witnesses who provided evidence to the Commission were from the ruling upper classes and castes. We can see their biases coming out through the language that they use. We see that for these elites, the 'other' was someone from the lower class who they considered inferior to themselves, whom they despised and looked down upon. For Hindus, it was Muslims...For Muslims, it was Hindus...For the urban dweller, it was the rural...For the upper castes, it was the indigenous communities, aboriginal tribes and persons from other religions...For the upper classes, it was the poor...Despite all these biases, we still get a very clear picture of the working classes and what cannabis meant to them. Despite the sheer importance of cannabis to the working classes, the upper classes allowed the British administration, and even aided the administration, in prohibiting cannabis. They probably saw that this would only affect the working classes, and not them as they would still be able to access their cannabis in the name of 'bhang'. Besides, the upper classes also had alcohol, tobacco and opium. Many of them did not even use intoxicants, so it did not matter. When the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act was created in 1985, the upper classes and castes would not have minded much because the Act said that it was only ganja and charas that was illegal, and not bhang. In their imbecility, they did not realize that bhang, charas and ganja were the same thing because they had fooled themselves for so long with their own lies. With the NDPS Act, cannabis as bhang, charas or ganja, was no longer available to the vast majority of Indians like it had been in the 19th century. The upper classes and castes still manage to get their 'bhang' regularly, most probably by getting their cook, gardener, security guard, or driver to smuggle it to them from their native villages at great risk. If these members of the working class are caught in the act, their masters will most likely wash their hands of the whole matter and probably even dismiss the servant to make a public show of their innocence and protect their status in society. If the servant at home is caught on any other occasion smoking ganja, he will most likely be dismissed for his behavior...

Today, we see in the countries and US states where cannabis is being legalized for adult recreational use, that cannabis usage laws in the workplace are becoming more and more lenient. Pre-employment testing for past cannabis use has been removed in most of these places, unless the work involves use of heavy machinery or hazardous work. Since much of the work in developed societies is done by machines, this means that many among the working classes there are still prohibited from using cannabis. Manual labour among the working classes in these societies is almost negligible, I would think. Those performing strenuous manual work in these countries are likely to fall into the poorest classes. For them, the price of legal cannabis is most likely going to be beyond their means. Most of these western countries with legalized adult use cannabis do not have climates conducive to growing good quality cannabis on large scales outdoors which is the most environmentally sustainable way to grow cannabis. For these countries to be able to access cannabis on large scales, so that its price becomes affordable to the poorest classes in these countries, traditional cannabis using nations with plenty of sunlight and conditions conducive to outdoor growing of cannabis - such as Mexico, South American countries, African countries and Asian countries - need to legalize cannabis completely, and produce cannabis on large scales so that it is not only available to meet the internal needs of these countries but also sufficient to export to western countries where the poorest there can also avail of it. In most of the world, we see that the occupations that were practiced by India's working and labouring classes in the 19th century still exist. In most nations, machines have not replaced humans to do the majority of the physical work unlike in the so-called developed nations, and will never do so due to the poverty of these nations. Therefore, to meet the global needs of the poorest working and labouring classes of every nation in the world, all countries need to work together to lift the cannabis ban world wide. Unless concerted effort is made to remove the cannabis ban globally, cannabis will only remain available to the very same upper classes and castes that brought about its ban. They will procure it legally paying huge prices in their legalized recreational markets or buy it illegally from the black market as they have always done. Others will consume alcohol, tobacco, opioids, cocaine, methamphetamine and dangerous prescription synthetic medicines for intoxication, recreation and medicine. The poorest classes in the world, who make up the majority of the world's population as its working and labouring classes, will remain without these dangerous drugs, and without their preferred safe and affordable herb, medicine, and intoxicant - cannabis. Thus, the prohibition of cannabis in every single nation of the world is discrimination against its poorest working and labouring classes by the ruling upper classes...

The Native American Indians have exercised their rights over their land in many US states, and have started cannabis cultivation and retail sales from their jurisdiction. This can be seen even in US states that have not yet legalized cannabis for recreational adult use. They are reverting back to a culture and tradition that their societies practiced for thousands of years before the white man arrived and put them into the prisons called reservations. Many indigenous communities and aboriginal tribes across the world enjoy such autonomy and rights over their own lands. But they are just not aware of their rights, or the tribal elders work hand in hand with the state to ensure that cannabis cultivation is not revived, so that the state and the tribal elders can exploit the people for the benefit of the upper classes and castes. In India, agriculture comes under the State List in the devolution of power between the federal and state governments. Yet, no state has legalized cannabis for adult recreational purposes because every state government has a political party as its leadership ,dominated by the upper classes and castes, that also works at the national level, following the bidding of the upper class and caste politicians whose primary objective is to keep the lower classes and castes suppressed and to feed off them. A few states, such as Himachal Pradesh, have increased cultivation of cannabis, but this is mainly for the medical cannabis industry and for industrial uses of cannabis. Both medical cannabis and industrial uses of cannabis only benefit the ruling upper classes and castes, and not the poor who make up the majority of every state. Even states like Odisha, that have a strong cannabis culture, and is ruled by politicians who have ensured that the cannabis culture is not completely erased as it would lead to a significant backlash from the people - especially the priestly classes of Jagannath and Puri who consume bhang - do not take the necessary steps to legalize it completely, but benefit from the cannabis diversion into the black market through which it reaches the upper classes and castes, while the poor need to hide and consume their cannabis for fear of law enforcement action. The politicians do the balancing act that ensures that they retain the power of the upper classes and castes over the people. Farmers from Punjab and Haryana have been fighting the federal government for years now against the controversial Farm Laws. But the focus of these farmers is only on the highly unsustainable wheat and rice that has caused widespread environmental damage through its cultivation using vast quantities of water, electricity and chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The stubble burning after these crops are harvested plunge large areas of North India under a cloud of smog for weeks, if not months, in winter, causing massive air pollution and numerous deaths and illnesses as a result of it. Besides this, the states of Punjab and Haryana reel under the addiction to opium with thousands of lives lost each year to heroin. But these states are controlled by the opium-loving politicians and authorities who have made India the largest producer of legal opium in the world. The authorities in these states, besides Gujarat and Maharashtra, have a big hand in the illegal trade of heroin across India's western and north western borders, that flows in from Pakistan and Afghanistan. Assam and Manipur, are similarly controlled by governments that have a big stake in the legal and illegal trade of opium through the northeastern borders in close proximity to Myanmar and China. The reduction of Jammu and Kashmir to union territories was made to ensure that the central authorities have tighter control over the movement of opium, even though it was stated that this was done for the purposes of national integration and national security. The cultivation of cannabis will not only provide valuable income for the farmers, especially the poorest one, it will also be sustainable agriculture requiring far less resources compared to wheat, rice and cotton. The byproducts of the harvest - the biomass - can be used by the construction, paper, biofuel, biodegradable plastic, fabric and animal feed industries, and can serve as valuable fertilizers for the soil. There will be no need to burn the crop stubble. It may even be possible to grow two crops of cannabis in a year in some places. If the people of all these states united and demanded their rights to safe intoxicant, safe medicine, safe entheogen (bhang was used extensively by Sikhs and charas by Muslims in these regions before cannabis was prohibited) and sustainable livelihood - all rights that are fundamental in the Indian constitution for the citizen - then cannabis could be easily legalized not only in these states, but also at the federal level. This is the power that lies with the people, though most are unaware of it. Instead, most people in these states fall for the deceit of patriotism, and the constant division of people in the name of religion, that the upper classes and castes practice to distract the people and retain power over the working and labouring classes...

We, the working and labouring classes, are everywhere. We are the voiceless majority, with hardly any rights. Being peaceful and content with whatever our destiny has in store for us, we exist in defiance of infantile greed and insecurity. We are envied all the more for these reasons, but try as they might no one can break us...We want our ganja back...