The Ganja-Smoking Outcasts: Spiritual Mendicants, Tramps and Beggars

'Expert texpert choking smokers,
Don't you think the joker laughs at you?'

 - I Am The Walrus, The Beatles

'We have entered a period where the old masquerade, in which the emotions were festooned with moral significance, now excites disgust; we would sooner have naked nature, where the amounts of power are simply admitted to the decisive (in determining rank), and where, as a consequence of grand passion, the grand style returns.'

 - Dionysus, The Will to Power, Friedrich Nietzsche

'Now at midnight all the agents
And the superhuman crew
Come out and round up everyone
That knows more than they do
Then they bring them to the factory
Where the heart-attack machine
Is strapped across their shoulders
And then the kerosene
Is brought down from the castles
By insurance men who go
Check to see that nobody is escaping
To Desolation Row'

 - Desolation Row, Bob Dylan

'I teach that there are superior and inferior men and that under certain circumstances, a single individual can justify the existence of whole millennia - i.e. a richer, greater, more complete and more comprehensive man can justify the existence of countlessly many incomplete fragments of men.' 

- The Will to Power, Friedrich Nietzsche

Introduction

Society is largely divided into two sections - castes and outcasts - based on social criteria. Among the castes, there are three upper castes and one lower caste. The upper castes consist of the priest, king and businessman. The lower caste consists of workers. The outcasts are those who do not fit into any of these categories. Society is also divided into classes based on economic criteria. The more wealth and possessions one has, the more upper class one is. The poorer you are, the more lower class you are. Priests, kings and businessmen generally make up the upper classes, while the workers make up the lower classes. The outcasts do not fit into the classes also, since they have no money to speak of. The poorest sections of society are the outcasts. The outcasts are below both the class and caste orders. In another article I deal with classes and castes. In this article, I am focusing on those outside the radar...the outcasts...

The outcastes are primarily made up of three groups: the spiritual mendicants, also known as sadhus, fakirs and sages; the tramps, also known as hobos and vagabonds; and the beggars, also known as bums. The terms spiritual mendicant, tramp and beggar, and their variations: sadhu, fakir; vagabond, hobo; bum; etc., are often interchangeably used to refer to the outcasts. In fact, spiritual mendicants, tramps and beggars are three separate classes with completely different characteristics. 

The primary difference between spiritual mendicants and tramps or beggars is that spiritual mendicants live their lives by choice. A tramp lives his life not by choice, is forced into his lifestyle due to the circumstances that have befallen him, but he does not beg for a living. A beggar also, like a tramp, lives his life not by choice, is forced into his lifestyle due to the circumstances that have befallen him, and he begs for a living. Let us look at these three classes of outcasts in more detail.

The Spiritual Mendicant

A healthy, thriving, vibrant forest is the home of apex predators, keystone species like the tiger, elephant and king cobra. They exist because the environment is conducive for their survival, with numerous animals of other species forming the prey base needed to sustain these apex creatures. These animals that form the prey base for the apex predators, in turn need further animals, as well as suitable flora to sustain their own existence. The forest is then in perfect health. Similarly, a healthy, vibrant and thriving human society has certain classes of individuals who signify the richness of the culture and zenith of human evolution. The one class of individuals whose presence shows that a civilization has reached its zenith are the spiritual mendicants, also called as sadhus or fakirs or sages, depending on the perspective of the onlooker. 

There was a time when societies had evolved to their peak and spiritual mendicants were a significant class of people in their culture. This was as true for the Greeks, as it was for the Indians, the Chinese and the Hebrews. At these times, not only were these cultures the wealthiest in the world, but they were also home to the highest number of spiritual mendicants. But even at the zenith, the spiritual mendicant was a rarity compared to the masses of people that inhabited societies. Friedrich Nietzsche writes, in The Will to Power, 'High above the filth and the squalor of the lowlands there lives a superior and more enlightened kind of man, of whom there are very few - for by their very nature, all things pre-eminent are rare. A man does not belong to this kind because he is more gifted, more virtuous, more heroic or more loving than the people down below, but rather because he is colder, clearer, more far-sighted and more solitary; because he endures, prefers and claims solitude as his good fortune, his prerogative, even as the condition of his existence; because he lives among clouds and lightning as among his peers and likewise among sunbeams, dewdrops, snowflakes and all that of necessity comes from on high, and should he set himself in motion, that motion will be forever downwards. No, we do not even aspire upwards, towards the heights. That we leave to heroes, martyrs, geniuses and enthusiasts of all kinds, for such men are not nearly taciturn, patient, discerning, dispassionate or imperturbable enough for us.' Speaking about the rarity of a human achieving the zenith of evolution, Nietzsche writes, 'The highest form a human being can take, the form most difficult to achieve, is that of the specimens least likely to succeed: that is why the history of philosophy exhibits such a profusion of failures and disappointments and progresses but slowly; whole millennia intervene to stifle whatever had been accomplished, with continuity being repeatedly interrupted. It is an appalling history - the history of the highest man, of the sage.' 

The spiritual mendicant was once revered by society as the highest form of human evolution. He could as easily have been emperor, but he chose to shun everything and live as close to being an animal as he could. This is one of the primary reasons for the reverence that a spiritual mendicant was held in by society in ancient times. He chose to focus on what he felt was most important - the ultimate reality and nature of existence. Through his single minded focus, and through the strengthening of his body and mind by the way he lived, the spiritual mendicant gained vast powers: the power to endure pain and suffering; the power to survive in the most adverse and extreme conditions; the power to control his senses; the power to control greed, desire, hunger and anger; the power of clairvoyance; the power of telepathy; the power of telekinesis; fearlessness; the power to communicate with animals; the power to heal injuries, diseases and ailments that afflicted the body and minds of humans; and so on...The spiritual mendicant was much sought after by the kings of the world to share his wisdom in matters of administration. Sometimes, the spiritual mendicant obliged, but not always. Nietzsche writes, in The Will to Power, 'Superior men live above all rulers, free from restraint - and in rulers they have their instruments.' Speaking about the spiritual mendicant being a higher class of human than emperors, Nietzsche says, 'Principle of hierarchy: he who determines the value and directs the will of millennia and does this by directing the naturally superior men, is the most superior man.' History is replete with documented evidence of the advice that emperors took from the spiritual mendicant. Alexander the Great and his encounter with the naked Indian sage, Merlin as the advisor of King Arthur, and so on...

The characteristics of the spiritual mendicant

It is only a few who have the capabilities of becoming a spiritual mendicant and reaching the zenith of human evolution. Writing about the qualities of a philosopher - who is a form of spiritual mendicant - Friedrich Nietzsche writes in The Will to Power, 'The reasons why the philosopher seldom prospers is that his preconditions include characteristics which usually ruin a man: (1) He must have an enormous multitude of characteristics; he must be a compendium of human nature, of all its loftiest aspirations and basest desires, thus exposing himself to the danger of internal conflicts and even self-disgust. (2) He must be curious about the various aspects of things - thus exposing himself to the danger of fragmentation. (3) He must be just and equitable in the highest sense, but deeply love and deeply hate (and be deeply unjust) as well. (4) He must not only be a spectator but a lawgiver - be both judge and judged (in so far as he is a compendium of the world). (5) He must be a man of many parts, yet strong and firm. Resilient.' The spiritual mendicant has all the flaws of the human race, and faces all the challenges and suffering, if not even more, than the rest of society. But his superiority comes from his ability to mould all this suffering, flaws and challenges into making him a better person where an inferior human would break, physically, mentally, or both. Nietzsche says, 'It is only a matter of strength: one must have all the pathological traits of the century, but offset by the superabundant strength necessary to recuperate from them, to sculpt them into something more. The strong man: a sketch.' Nietzsche might as well have been dedicating the chapter Dionysus in his book, The Will to Power, to the spiritual mendicant. He writes, 'To him who is well constituted, who does my heart good, who is carved from wood which is hard, fine and fragrant - who delights even my nose - this book is dedicated. He savours that which is wholesome. His enjoyment of anything ceases as soon as it goes beyond the bounds of wholesomeness. He divines the remedies for minor injuries, his illnesses are the great stimulantia of his life. He knows how to take advantage of his own bad luck. He grows stronger through the misfortunes which threaten to destroy him. He instinctively gleans from everything he sees, hears and experiences only that which serves his main purpose, he proceeds on a principle of selectivity, he allows much to fall by the wayside. He reacts with a leisureliness born of long caution and deliberate pride - he examines the stimulus to determine where it comes from, where it is going, without submitting to it. He is always his own company, whether his commerce is with books, with people or with landscapes: he honours things by choosing them, permitting them, trusting them...' Describing what it is to be noble, Nietzsche writes in The Will to Power, 'To care for outward appearances, even to the point of frivolity in word, dress and bearing, in so far as this care marks a man off from others, keeps them at bay and guards him against being mistaken for them. To comport oneself in an unhurried manner, even to gaze upon things with an unhurried eye. There are few things of value and these come, and are willing to come, of their own accord to those who are themselves of value. We are slow to admire. To bear poverty, indigence, and even illness. To shun minor honours and distrust anyone who is quick to praise, for he who praises believes that he understands what he praises; but instead to understand (as Balzac, that prototype of the social climber, once put it) that comprende c'est egaler. To have profound doubts as to whether the secrets of the heart can be communicated; not to choose solitude but to take it for granted. To be convinced that one has duties only to one's peers and to behave towards them as one sees fit; that justice is to be hoped for (but alas! by no means expected) only inter pares. To treat the gifted with irony; to believe that in morals, too, there are those of noble birth. 'Aristocrats of the intellect' is a watchword among Jews. Always to regard oneself as conferring honours, while seldom finding anyone from whom one would accept them.'

Love is the primary feeling that develops in the spiritual mendicant. One of the main characteristics that mark the spiritual mendicant as the highest evolved of human beings is the fact that he is the personification of the truth, 'God is love'. The spiritual mendicant's love is not narrow and finite but vast and infinite. It covers all creation and the void. The hatred and the injuries that he is subjected to by his fellow men in no way diminishes the love he feels for them. His love is something that most humans cannot understand, since it is not the external show of gestures like gifts, or false words. His love does not wish to possess another, but shows the oneness of all beings that are the spirit in form. He loves the rocks as much as humans. He loves the things that most people fear and hate - the snake, the scorpion and the swine. He loves the leper and the outcast as much as he loves the king and the high priest. It is a love that is unconditional, and does not seek anything in return, unlike many who love with the cost-benefit of this act constantly in their minds. This is the reason why the most fearsome animals amble up or slide lovingly close to the spiritual mendicant. The tiger will lie at his feet, the wolf will become his lifelong companion, and the snake will wrap itself playfully around his arms, waist and neck. These animals are much more highly evolved than most humans. They can sense pure love, as different from fear and the selfish love that most humans possess. That is why the spiritual mendicant does not see a separation of the eternal spirit into good and evil, god and the devil. He sees the unity of all things, and himself as an embodiment of this wholeness and unity of the spirit. Nietzsche writes about this, saying, 'Rich and powerful souls not only manage to deal with painful, even terrible losses, hardships, robberies and insults; they emerge from such hells with an even greater richness and power, and - the most essential thing - with a newly developed sense of the rapture of love. I believe that he who divined something of the most fundamental conditions for the growth of love will [understand] Dante for having written over the portal of his inferno: 'Even I was created by eternal love.'

Interestingly, the spiritual mendicant is as at home in the forest as he is in the city. He is as much an animal as he is the highest refined human being. This is because he has evolved to such an extent that he knows that he is everything. For the spiritual mendicant, the senses are as important as the metaphysical. He sees the interconnectedness of nature, and that god, or the eternal spirit, is both form and void. The spiritual mendicant considers intoxication, sexuality, meat-eating and other pleasures of the senses as natural experiences that are part of the whole. He is as much the supreme beast as he is the supreme human. He does not, however, let any of his senses gain mastery over him, but uses them according to the requirements of his being, and shuns anything in excess that is seen to diminish his spiritual power. He shuns human-made artificial pleasures of the senses but embraces everything that is natural. Nietzsche writes in the chapter on Dionysus, in The Will to Power, 'Sexuality, ambition, the pleasure derived from illusion and deception, great, joyous gratitude towards life and its typical conditions - that is what is essential to pagan cults and has a good conscience on its side. That which is unnatural (already apparent in Greek antiquity) combats paganism, as morality, dialectics and asceticism.' He writes, 'The most intellectual men feel the charm and magic of sensual things in a way in which other men, whose hearts are set on 'things of the flesh', neither can nor should imagine - the former are sensualists in the best sense of the word, because they allow a more fundamental value to the senses than those fine sieves, those apparatuses of rarefaction and reduction, or however else one might characterize what is popularly called the 'intellect'. The strength and power of the senses - this is the most essential thing in a well-constituted and whole man: the splendid beast must be there first - otherwise to what purpose is all 'humanization'!' By his actions, he shows that everything that is natural is wholesome. Nietzsche writes, 'There must be those who consecrate all that we do, not only eating and drinking; and not only in remembrance of them, or to become one with them, but that this world may be made ever anew and in ever new ways transfigured.'

The spiritual mendicant is rarely seen, elusive, solitary, keeping away from places where large numbers of humans gather, and taking to the paths less travelled to be alone with nature in his solitude. Emerson said, quoting Porphyry, 'Popularity is for dolls. “Steep and craggy,” said Porphyry, “is the path of the gods.” If he ever ventures into a human settlement, it is mainly for ganja, and sometimes, food. In most cases, he grows a few cannabis plants of his own, wherever he is able to, in order to provide for part of his needs, as much as possible. He has no need for clothing, shelter and money. Sometimes he ventures into places that people frequent to study the different aspects of human behavior, and to see if it has changed since he last observed them. Even among a crowd of humans, he remains silent and aloof, in a corner where he is almost invisible. He is a master of disguises - not just in terms of external clothes and accessories, but in moulding his behavior so that he appears suitable for the context - and can easily melt into a crowd and become invisible till he has once again found his solitude. People hardly see him when he lives, and almost nobody sees him when he dies. He may just as well have vanished from the face of the earth into thin air. Spiritual mendicants never stay in one place for long. They keep wandering. They are the saunterers or St. Terriers that Henry James Thoreau, the American sage spoke about. The reasons why spiritual mendicants wander are many: the change in weather in a place when it gets too hot, or cold or wet; the desire to see nature in a different way as they love nothing more than the beauty of nature; the desire to procure ganja from a different place when their supplies run low, as among their vast repositories of knowledge is the knowledge of where to get the best ganja is, and at what times of the year this is available.  This behavior of the spiritual mendicant of shunning society and its seductions, and preferring nature to it has often made him the target of society's derision and contempt, labeling him a lunatic or idiot. Nietzche says, 'I neglected to mention that such philosophers are serene and that they enjoy sitting under the boundless depths of a cloudless sky - they need means of enduring life different from those of other men, for they suffer in another way (that is to say, as much from the depth of their contempt for man as from their love). The most wretched animal on earth devised for itself - laughter.' The importance of solitude is paramount for the spiritual mendicant, so as to not erode and diminish his spiritual power. Many wise men have written about the importance of solitude for every person who wishes to develop, heal and better understand himself or herself. But this desire for solitude in the spiritual mendicant raises suspicion and fear in the minds of lesser humans who only see the world through their distorted minds filled with deceit, dishonesty, greed, jealousy and hatred. Nietzsche writes in The Will to Power, 'The superior man, the philosophical man who is surrounded by solitude, not because he prefers to be left alone, but because he is, by his very nature, without equal; what dangers and new sufferings await him now, just when we have lost our belief in rank and therefore no longer know how to honour this solitude or even to understand it! Fortunately, the popular conscience took the hermit to be almost self-sanctifying in the manner of his withdrawal from worldly affairs; today the hermit appears to be encircled by a cloud of dark doubts and suspicions. And so he seems not only to the envious and the wretched; he cannot help but feel that there is some misunderstanding, neglect and superficiality in every kindness shown to him; he is well acquainted with the insidiousness of compassionate but narrow-minded friends who only feel good and saintly when trying (perhaps by providing more comfortable positions or companions of more regular habits and reliable character) to 'save' him from himself - yes, he has to admire how mediocre minds are unwittingly driven to oppose and destroy him in full assurance of their right to do so! For men of such incomprehensible mental isolation it is even necessary that they thoroughly and firmly wrap themselves in the mantle of physical seclusion: that is a part of their wisdom. Today, even cunning and disguise are needed for such a man to preserve himself, to keep the head above water and not to be dragged under by the dangerous rapids of this age. He has to atone for every attempt to abide in the present and with the present, for every rapprochement with modern men and modern aims, as if it were an actual sin: and he may well marvel at the latent wisdom of his nature, which immediately answers all such attempts with illness and serious accidents and thereby calls him back to himself again.'

Intoxication is an essential part of the spiritual mendicant's being. Intoxication elevates the spiritual mendicant from the mundane until his mind soars in the lofty heavens where time and space cease to exist. He is then god in human form. Nietzsche writes, in The Will to Power, 'The state of pleasure which we call intoxication is precisely a supreme sense of power...Perceptions of time and space are altered; tremendous distances are surveyed, and first become perceivable, as it were; the expansion of the vision to encompass greater masses and distances; the refinement of the faculty for the perception of the smallest and most transitory things; divination, the power of understanding at the slightest hint or suggestion, that is, an 'intelligent' sensibility...Strength as a sense of muscular control, as suppleness of, and delight in, movement, as dance, as ease and presto; strength as a desire to prove one's strength, as bravado, adventurousness, fearlessness: the strength of a heedless creature...All these elevated moments of life stimulate each other; the imagery and imagination of one suffices as a suggestion for the other...Such states which are perhaps better kept apart finally intertwine with each other. For example, the sense of religious rapture and sexual excitement (two profound sensations which are found in combination to an extant which is well-nigh amazing. What is it that pleases all pious women, both young and old? The answer: a saint with handsome legs, still young, still an idiot.)' He writes, 'Dionysian intoxication contains sexuality and voluptuousness; it is usually lacking in the Apollonian state. There must also be a difference of tempo between the states...The extreme calm of certain feelings of intoxication (or, more strictly, the diminution of the sense of time and space) is reflected in the vision of the calmest gestures and acts of the soul. The classical style essentially represents calm, simplification, abbreviation and concentration. The intoxication of nature: the supreme sense of power is concentrated in the classical type. Slow to respond; enlarged consciousness; no sense of struggle.'

The spiritual mendicant gained such formidable personal powers that his presence had the same kind of effect on others as that of a wild tiger, king cobra or a wild elephant. His presence struck terror in the hearts and minds of those who were fragmented, incomplete, filled with deceit and lived in delusion. His image was that of god walking on the earth. This is unlike the images that the upper classes and castes would like to paint of the spiritual mendicant and god, as benign, gentle, smiling, lambs. He may have smiled, but it was the smile of the wolf that would just as well devour you with glee if the situation demanded it. Siva, seen on a lonely stretch of the path, at dawn or sunset, would have caused many to die of fright and terror. The Buddha, encountered on a lonely road, was compared with a wild elephant by a witness, such was the force of his persona. The persona of the spiritual mendicant was as fearsome to those who wished to dominate, as it was gentle to those who wished to submit. Nietzsche writes in the chapter on Dionysus, in The Will to Power, 'Formidableness is a part of greatness; let us not deceive ourselves.' The spiritual mendicant's presence in a crowd would still all conversation, and send a wave of electricity sweeping through the minds of those present. One look from him was sufficient to silence even the most talkative of humans.

The difference between the spiritual mendicant and the upper caste priest

There is a tendency to confuse the monks and priests of the religious classes with the spiritual mendicants. But these are entirely two different classes. Spiritual mendicants are not affiliated to any religion, organization or community. They were independent, solitary beings who view god as above all religions. Priests and monks are, however, part of a religious order that makes up the priestly class in the priest-king-businessman hierarchy. The priest or monk is employed by the religious order that he belongs to, and has a specific role, function and position in the priestly hierarchy. The priest or monk is devoted exclusively to the god of the religion that he is affiliated to. It is part of his mission in life to propagate the laws and rules laid down by the high priests of his religion, to recruit new members, and to ensure that existing members remain in line. His role is essentially that of a shepherd managing the flock that make the priestly class wealthy and powerful. To the priest or monk, the spiritual mendicant is a threat as he operates outside the religious order's dominion like a wolf or falcon that can easily waylay some of the flock and turn them wild again. Because of this threat, the priest or monk is among the main enemies of the spiritual mendicant, and played a key part in the process that saw the decline of the spiritual mendicant as a class. The crucifixion of Jesus and the role played by the high priests of the synagogue is a story that most people are well acquainted with. That has however not stopped anybody today from owing their allegiance to the high priest, and completely ignoring what the spiritual mendicant Jesus had to say. All this is done in the name of Jesus, which is the amazing guile of the priestly class, and the general imbecility of the people.  We find similar parallels in India, where the priests of the caste-based religion cut to pieces the concept of Siva, and in almost all religions of the world where the spiritual mendicant in whose name the religion was started is now reduced to the role of poster boy, while the priests dictate what is right and wrong claiming that they receive this information directly from the one whom they represent, and only they can communicate with the spiritual master.

Spiritual mendicants did not have any official attire that identified them from the rest of society. They were mostly scantily clad, and in many cases naked, and wore whatever they could lay their hands on. There is widespread misconception, even to this day, that a spiritual mendicant wore saffron or ochre robes, and numerous beads. The first instance of a spiritual mendicant wearing saffron or ochre robes that I came across was that of the Buddha, and this was incidental and not by design. When the Buddha left the city in search of enlightenment, he shed all his robes and other accessories at the city gates. He then walked further until he came to a pit with bodies of criminals who had been hanged the previous day. From one of these bodies, the Buddha took the saffron robe and donned it. Over time, those who came to regard themselves as his followers started wearing saffron robes in imitation of the Buddha. This was an instance of a religious order wearing common attire, and there probably were already many other religious orders in existence at that time with common attire, especially where the priest-king-businessman hierarchy was significant in society. Wearing common attires identified and differentiated a religious order from other religious orders. It also differentiated the priestly caste and class from the rest of the classes and castes in society. This is exactly the opposite of what the spiritual mendicant did, not wanting to be identified with any organization, community or order. We see, eventually, the priests of the various caste-based religions, and the newer religions of Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity and Islam adopted the measures of a common attire for the religious order to identify themselves as the upper castes, and differentiate themselves from the rest of society. 

The priests and monks who belong to the priestly class and caste of the upper classes and castes preach that humans must abstain from ganja, sexual pleasure, flesh-eating, and other natural forms of existence, and that asceticism, deprivation of the senses, and killing the senses are the commandments of god. Nietzsche writes in the chapter on Dionysus, in The Will to Power, 'It is only fair that the highest and most illustrious human joys, those in which existence celebrates its own transfiguration, should come only to the incomparable and the best constituted, although only after they and their ancestors have, unbeknownst to themselves, spent their lives in preparation for them. It is then that a superabundance of the most diverse forces and at the same time a swift power of 'free' decision and magisterial decree can amicably coexist in the same man, for then the intellect is just as much at home in the senses as the senses are at home in the intellect; and all that takes place in the one also awakens a refined and exceptionally felicitous play in the other. And conversely! Take a moment to consider this converse process in Hafez; even Goethe gives us an inkling of this process, albeit in an attenuated form. It is probable that in such perfectly well-constituted men, enjoyments of a wholly sensual nature are ultimately transformed into allegorical reveries of the highest intellectuality; they experience in themselves a kind of deification of the body and are at the greatest remove from that ascetic philosophy which is expressed in the proposition 'God is a spirit': which only goes to show that the ascetic is the 'ill-constituted man', the man who merely takes something intrinsic to him and especially that in him which judges and condemns and calls it good - calls it 'God'. By contrast, the Greeks knew of a whole vast spectrum of happiness, from that height of joy where man thoroughly feels himself to be a deified form and self-justification of nature, all the way down to the joy of robust peasants and robust half-human animals. In the face of this, they quivered with the gratitude of the initiate and gave it, with much circumspection and pious reticence, the divine name of Dionysus. What then do the modern men, the children of a frail, often ailing and unlikely mother, know of the extent of the Greeks' happiness? What could they know about it! What could possibly entitle the slaves of 'modern ideas' to participate in Dionysian revels!'

The monks and nuns in European monasteries make their own wine and beer. Much of this is for their own consumption, but they also sell it to outsiders for additional revenue for the monastery. It would be unimaginable for the societies in these places to contemplate a ban on wine and beer making by these monks and nuns, and to label them as lazy, indolent criminals like the British rulers and Indian upper classes and castes have done with ganja and the spiritual mendicant classes in India. Again, this is because the ganja smoking community is inherently peace-loving and content, unlike the belligerent alcohol drinking communities of Europe who would immediately rise up in violent rebellion if such a measure was even contemplated. The heads of kings would roll...

Ganja and charas as the fuel of the spiritual mendicant in India

Most spiritual mendicants in India revered Siva, and most spiritual mendicants were Siva personified. Shivoham! Shivoham! Ganja was the herb of Siva, the ultimate entheogen, intoxicant and medicine. The Report of Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1894-95, says, "It is chiefly in connection with the worship of Siva, the Mahadeo or great god of the Hindu trinity, that the hemp plant, and more especially perhaps ganja, is associated. The hemp plant is popularly believed to have been a great favourite of Siva, and there is a great deal of evidence before the Commission to show that the drug in some form or other is now extensively used in the exercise of the religious practices connected with this form of worship. Reference to the almost universal use of hemp drugs by fakirs, jogis, sanyasis, and ascetics of all classes, and more particularly of those devoted to the worship of Siva, will be found in the paragraphs of this report dealing with the classes of the people who consume the drugs. These religious ascetics, who are regarded with great veneration by the people at large, believe that the hemp plant is a special attribute of the god Siva, and this belief is largely shared by the people. Hence the origin of many fond epithets ascribing to ganja the significance of a divine property, and the common practice of invoking the deity in terms of adoration before placing the chillum or pipe of ganja to the lips." In India, ganja was the fuel of the spiritual mendicant. It enabled him to flourish. Most spiritual mendicants ventured into civilization to get access to ganja from the classes that cultivated them. It was ganja that they sought much more than food. It was common for a spiritual mendicant to be given ganja as alms by the people when he walked into a village or town. It was ganja that he needed the most, more than food or shelter or clothing.

The report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, based on witnesses who were all from the British administration and Indian upper classes and castes, reveals the importance of cannabis to the spiritual mendicant classes and the extent of its usage by these classes. In its summary, the Commission reports, 'Classes who use the drugs as stimulants. 488. .. At the same time consumption is in the main confined to particular classes. Ganja or charas is chiefly used by (I) "religious" persons, such as fakirs and wandering mendicants, sadhus and pandahs, the followers of Trinath, and other sects;...Among the upper classes this habit is generally regarded as exceptional and indicating a special tendency to dissipation, but not so among these lower classes. Bhang is also used to some extent by these classes, but is more generally used by the more respectable middle and upper classes...Like all intoxicants everywhere, the drugs are used in moderation, but more frequently to excess, by licentious and dissipated persons of all classes. Except, however, in the case of religious mendicants, the use by all the classes named above is generally moderate. Excess is exceptional.' It further reports in its summary, regarding the contempt towards, and discrimination against, the lower classes by the upper classes who favored bhang instead of ganja, even though they were both the same cannabis plant, only difference being whether it was smoked or drunk. The report says, '489. From what has been said above it will be expected that there would be many witnesses whose opinion regarding the use of these drugs as stimulants would not be favourable. The very great majority of witnesses in all provinces declare that this use of the drugs is regarded with disapproval by the people generally. This disapproval rests on several grounds. It depends partly on the classes using the drugs. Many witnesses point out that ganja is the cheapest intoxicant, and that it is principally used by the lower classes, while bhang is more used by the upper classes. They state that it is on this account that ganja smoking is regarded with much more general disfavour than bhang drinking. As one witness points out, the feeling is somewhat akin to that which some Englishmen who do not generally disapprove of stimulants have regarding a "vulgar taste for gin." On the other hand, the use of ganja by religious persons is not thus generally disapproved. Many witnesses share the view which one witness tersely expresses thus: "Sanyasis are respected by the people; low caste people are not respected." There is no doubt that by far the greater part of the community abstain from any disapproval, and in fact are even strongly in favour, of the use of these drugs by religious persons, although that use is so often excessive. Mr. Monro (Bengal witness No. 206), however, records an instance of his having persuaded the people among whom he was working to dissociate ganja and holiness, so that "a sanyasi was laughed out of the town when I convicted him of habitually consuming ganja."'

From the individual witness statements before the Commission, we can see the extent of cannabis usage by the spiritual mendicant classes. They primarily smoked cannabis as ganja or charas. The use of charas was to a much lesser extent, since charas was not manufactured as a product in India much. Most of the charas in India was imported from northwestern and northeastern regions bordering India. Charas was therefore much more expensive than ganja and not so easily available. Hence, we see charas usage by spiritual mendicants to be largely restricted to those who were located close to these areas. Cannabis, eaten and drunk as bhang, was used by the spiritual mendicant classes whenever it was available. Bhang was usually prepared with other ingredients, such as nuts, spices and milk. These were not always available with the mendicants, and so it was only when bhang was given to them by others, or when they had all the ingredients as well as the facilities to prepare bhang, did they consume it. This was usually when they were in populated areas such as cities, towns and villages. When they were wandering on their own, it was most likely ganja that they smoked. We see from the accounts across the length and breadth of the country, how universal the usage of cannabis was among the spiritual mendicant class. The extent of usage, and the uniformity of habits, shows that cannabis had been used by the spiritual mendicant classes for a long time, over thousands of years. 

Widespread evidence of the spiritual mendicant as the primary class of ganja users

Let us look at the individual witness statements regarding cannabis usage by spiritual mendicants, in response to questions 10, 17, 20, 24, 27 posed by the Hemp Commission regarding the classes that consumed cannabis, and the reasons for it...From the widespread evidence, from across the length and breadth of the country, we can gauge the extent of ganja smoking by the spiritual mendicants, and the fact that they had been doing so for thousands of years. Mr. J. C. Price, Magistrate and Collector, Rajshahi, says, 'As a rule only the poorer classes smoke ganja: they are sanyasis, bairagis, fakirs, mendicants..' Mr. A. C. Tute, Magistrate and Collector of Dinajpur, says, 'Most of the Sanyasis and mendicants,..Ramads, etc..' Mr. K. G. Gupta, Commissioner of Excise, Bengal, says 'Hindu mendicants (sadhus, sanyasis, etc.) use it to a man, as do the priests and attendants of Hindu temples, especially of those that are dedicated to Siva.' Mr. G. E. Manisty, Magistrate and Collector of Saran, says, 'The Hindu mendicants known as Jogis and Sadhus invariably...smoke ganja.'  Mr. E. H. C. Walsh, Officiating Magistrate and Collector of Cuttack, says, 'The lower classes chiefly, and fakirs almost universally.' Mr. A. E. Harward, Offg. Magistrate and Collector, says, 'Bairagies, sanyasis, and religious mendicants generally are specially addicted to the use of ganja...Habitual excessive consumers are mostly to be found among religious mendicants..' Colonel C. H. Garbett, Deputy Commissioner of Hazaribagh, says, 'Ganja is not used by the Muhammadans, of the district, except those of them who form the fakir (beggar) class'. Rai Nandakisore Das, Bahadur, District Officer of Angul, Cuttack, says, 'Mendicant Bairagis, to be occasionally seen here and there, are excessive consumers.' Mr. W. Maxwell, Sub-Divisional Officer, Jhenidah, District Jessore, says, 'sanyasis are the classes who use ganja most.' Chunder Narain Singh, Kayasth, Deputy Collector, at present employed as Personal Assistant to the Commissioner of the Bhagalpur Division, says, 'It is also freely smoked by religious mendicants and fakirs in almost every part of Bengal.' Babu Ram Charan Bose, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Alipur, 24-Parganas, says, 'The up-country sanyasis, mendicants, and fakirs are mostly addicted to ganjasmoking, and bhang is taken by them as a drink too.' Babu Navin Krishna Banerji, Brahman, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Purulia, District Manbhum, says, 'The Bagdis, Dulias, Baistavs, garwans, sanyasis, fakir...smoke ganja...' Babu Pran Kumar Das, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector and Personal Assistant to the Commissioner of Burdwan, says, 'Ganja is largely smoked by sanyasis (religious ascetics) and fakirs, i.e., religious mendicants, both Hindus and Muhammadans take it largely...' Babu Ganendra Nath Pal, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Naogaon, says, 'Ganja is smoked generally by people of the lowest class, such as...fakir, sanyasis, jogi, Boistab, songster...Fakirs, jogis, sanyasis...form the class of habitual moderate consumers; and among these the mendicant class are habitual excessive consumers.' Babu Jaga Mohan Bhattacharjya, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector and Personal Assistant to Commissioner, Chittagong, says, 'The sanyasis all over the country are addicted to the excessive use of ganja.' Babu Manmohan Chakravarti, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Jajpur, Cuttack, Orissa, says, 'Ganja is smoked habitually by sanyasis and vaishnavas.' Maulavi Abdus Samad, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Purulia, Manbhum, says, 'Ganja is smoked generally by the...sanyasis and jogis, fakirs,...and Brahmins who worship Kali...' Babu Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, on deputation as 2nd Inspector of Excise,, says, 'Bengal...Ganja.— Classes. — (b) Habitual excessive.—Sanyasi, bairagi, fakir, ramait, etc.' Babu Gobind Chandra Das, Baidya, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Malda, says, 'The sanyasis, the bairagies (mendicant Baisnavs), and the Gir Gosains are, as a rule, addicted to ganja smoking. The sanyasis or religious ascetics are spread all over India, and are too well known to be described here. The bairagies are also well known. With regard to them, it is to be noted that their females also freely smoke ganja...Amongst the excessive consumers are to be found, as I have said, the village vagabonds. To this class also belong the sanyasis and the bairagis, and also the Gir Gosains.' Babu Suresh Chundra Bal, Baidya, Special Excise Deputy Collector, Howrah, says, 'Ganja is extensively used by religious mendicants, especially by the up-country sanyasis who frequent Bengal on occasions of religious festivals...This class of consumers are generally the sanyasis and mendicants.' Babu Roy Brahma Dutt, Kayasth, Excise Deputy Collector, Darbhanga, says, 'mendicants... Mostly mendicants and men associating with them.' Babu Wooma Charan Bose, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector; Manager, Raj Banaili, District Bhagalpur, says, 'Almost all classes, especially ascetics, fakirs, mahants, and bairagies and religious mendicants...ascetics, fakirs, mahants, bairagies..drink bhang...Ascetics, fakirs, mahants, bairagies are generally habitual excessive consumers of ganja and bhang from their wandering habits.'  Babu Hem Chunder Kerr, Kayasth, Retired Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Sub-Registrar of Sealdah, says, '...mendicants, make use of the drug.' Babu Kali Das Mukerji, Sub-Deputy Collector and Superintendent of Distillery, Serampore, Hughli, says, 'Ganja is consumed by all classes of the natives of the soil, though the greater number may be found in the...Muhammadan fakirs, and Hindu friars...Bhang is...often consumed by Hindu friars (not Muhammadan fakirs)'. Babu Jogendra Nath Mozumdar, Brahmin, Deputy Inspector of Excise, Darjeeling, says, 'ganja is pre-eminently the thing of the poor and is mostly in use amongst sadhus, jogis, fakirs, bhakat...' Babu Digendra Nath Pal, Kayasth, Deputy Inspector of Excise, 24-Parganas, says, 'These are mainly taken from lower class of Hindus and Muhammdans, such as ..Boistab, sanyasi..' Mr. W. C. Fasson, District Superintendent of Police, Bogra, says, 'The use of ganja is characteristic of individuals rather than classes, but it is extensively used by cultivators, and almost invariably by bairagis, fakirs, sanyasis, and other religious mendicants...' Mr. R. L. Ward, District Superintendent of Police, Rajshahi, says, '(a) Bairagis, sanyasis, and all religious mendicants...those who lead the life of ascetics, who sleep in the street, under trees, and on banks of rivers, etc.' Babu Mathura Mohan Sirkar, Inspector of Police, Jhenida, District Jessore, says, 'The sadhus, holy mendicants and their followers...' Mr. W. R. Ricketts, Manager, Nilgiri State, Tributary Mahals, Orissa, says, 'Mostly religious mendicants and ascetics, such as Babajis and Boisnabs.' Mahamahopadhya Mahesha Chandra Nyayaratna, C. I. E., Brahmin, Principal, Government Sanskrit College, Calcutta, says, 'Ganja is almost invariably smoked by sanyasis...' Babu Pratapchandra Ghosha, Registrar of Calcutta, says, ' Ganja.—All mendicants, ascetics, fakirs, etc.,...and such other persons...as are exposed to the inclemencies of the weather...Bhang is drunk universally.' Surgeon-Lieutenant-Colonel E. Bovill, Officiating Civil Surgeon of Patna and Superintendent, Lunatic Asylum, says, 'Bhagats and sadhus, and those who consort with them, all smoke ganja...I hear that all worshippers of Siva take bhang and ganja.' Rai Bahadur Kanny Loll Dey, C.I.E., late Chemical Examiner to the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, says, '..ascetics...In Lower Bengal darwans, ascetics...use [bhang].' Assistant Surgeon Bosonto Kumar Sen, in Civil Medical Charge, Bogra, says, 'the bairagis and sanyasis are more addicted to it.' Assistant Surgeon Chooney Lall Dass, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence and Therapeutics, Medical School, Dacca, says 'Sanyasis, mendicants, bairagis...' Assistant Surgeon Devendranath Roy, Brahmin, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence, Campbell Medical School, Calcutta, says, 'Religious mendicants, both Hindu (including the Baisnavas who beg and sing) and Muhammadan, are as a rule habitual excessive consumers'. Assistant Surgeon Soorjee Narain Singh, Kayasth, Bankipur, says 'The worshippers of Mahadeva, as a rule, and fakirs and sanyasis, more or less, of all denominations use it. But the Vaishnavas of Bengal, the Dandis, the Nirmalas, the Akalis and Udasis of the Nanak Shahi sect, and many others never use it. Many mendicants and most of the dissipated and depraved use it.' Kailas Chundra Bose, Kayasth, Medical Practitioner, Calcutta, says, 'sadhus and fakirs smoke it...jogis, and sanyasis drink bhang to excess...' Prasad Das Mallik, Subarnabanik, Medical Practitioner, Hughli, says '...religious mendicants and sanyasis are the people who are found generally to smoke ganja.' Maharaja Girijanath Roy Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'Ganja is generally used by...the religious mendicants and jogis.' Raja Mahima Ranjan Roy Chowdhry, Zamindar, Kakina, Rangpur, says, 'Generally sanyasis...smoke ganja and charas.' Rai Radha Govinda Rai, Sahib Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'Most of the sanyasis and mendicants...generally use it...Sanyasis are habitual excessive consumers. Mendicants and menials are habitual moderate consumers.' Babu Surendra Nath Pal Chowdhury, Zamindar, Ranaghat, District Nadia, says, 'Certain religious sects, such as jogis, sanyasis and fakirs (both Hindus and Muhammadans) use these drugs (ganja and bhang) in excessive quantities to enable them to endure hardships, to deaden their passions, etc.; and their number is not small.' Babu Girjapat Sahai, Kayasth, Zamindar, Patnam says, 'Fakirs and sadhus generally smoke ganja in all the localities.' Babu Radhika Churn Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar, Berhampur, says, 'Sanyasis, with few exceptions, are addicted to this habit.' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'The use of ganja is not confined to any particular class or to any particular locality, but there are sects of religious mendicants who are habitual and even excessive smokers...Generally speaking, I may state that in this province the habitual excessive consumers of ganja are the sadhus or peripatetic religious mendicants...' Gossain Mohendra Gir, Sanyasi, Zamindar, English Bazar, Malda, says, 'sanyasis smoke it as a rule.' Babu Kalikisto Sarkar, Kayasth, Talukdar, Kasundi, Jessore, says, 'Sanyasis, baisnabs and fakirs also smoke ganja..' Babu Kamaleswari Persad, Zamindar, Monghyr, says, 'Ganja is smoked by religious mendicants and low class people, and charas mostly by Muhammadans in almost every locality.' Mr. L. H. Mylne, Zamindar and Indigo-planter, Justice of the Peace, President of Independent Bench of Honorary Magistrates, Chairman of Jugdispur Municipality, District Shahabad, says, 'Sadhus and fakirs (religious mendicants) smoke most heavily.' Babu Sasi Bhusan Roy, Manager, Dubalhati Raj Estate, Rajshahi District, says, 'the habitual excessive smokers come from the sanyasis...' Mr. H. M. Weatherall, Manager, Nawab's Estate, Tippera, says, 'Religious medicants, such as jogis, bairagis, and other low castes, chiefly Hindus, smoke both ganja and charas.' Babu Sashi Bhushan Roy, Chairman, Satkhira Municipality, District Khulna, says, 'Saivas also use ganja.' Rev. Prem Chand, Missionary, B. M. S., Gaya, says, 'The sadhus are much addicted to it as well as charas, which is not in much favour with the common people.' Revd. G. C. Dutt, Missionary, Khulna, says, 'religious mendicants, such as sanyasis and fakirs and followers of Trinath and Kartabhajas and a new Muhammadan sect called fakirs, smoke ganja.' Babu Sasadhar Roy, Brahmin, Pleader and Honorary Magistrate, Rajshahi, says, 'I should note that...sanyasis or religious mendicants...are consumers, more or less, of ganja and bhang.' Babu Jadunath Kanjilal, Brahmin, Pleader, Judge's Court, Hughli, says, 'The fakirs, sanyasis, dandis, and other mendicants...largely smoke ganja and charas.' Babu Beprodas Banerjee, Brahman, Pleader, Newspaper Editor, and Chairman, Baraset Municipality, says, 'Sadhus, both Hindus and Muhammadans, almost invariably use ganja and charas when they can afford to buy it (charas).' Babu Bhuvan Mohun Sanyal, Brahmin, Government Pleader, Purnea, says, 'In this district ganja is largely used by...sanyasis and fakirs. The number of Hindu consumers is much larger than that of the Muhammadan...Ganja.—...Habitual excessive consumers—sanyasis, fakirs, &c.' Babu Jadubans Sshai, Pleader and Vice-Chairman, Arrah Municipality, says, 'jogis and nagas are specially votaries of this drug.' Babu Kamala Kanta Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar and Pleader, President of the Chittagong Association, says, 'Ganja is smoked by...Hindu and Muhammadan fakirs (ascetics)...' Babu Prosad Dass Dutt, Zamindar, Calcutta, says, 'The mendicants of Upper India, which include jogis, sanyasis, and sadhus as a special class, generally use ganja in excess when in a large party and can afford to pay for the same.' District Board, Patna, says, 'The other class with whom the ganja is a favourite smoke is the Hindu sanyasis (mendicants).' District Board, Monghyr (Sub-Committee), says, 'For ganja— ..Fakirs and religious mendicants. Note.—Sadhus and sanyasis smoke habitually to excess.' Masdar Ali, Pleader, Sylhet, says, 'Ganja is smoked by...certain fakirs and sanyasis.' Babu Abantinath Datta, Kayastha, Pleader, Judge's Court, Cachar, says, 'The ascetics as a class indulge in ganja-smoking...The excessive consumption of ganja is the largest among the ascetics...' Kamini Kumar Chandra, Kayastha, Bengali, Pleader, Silchar, says, 'ramayats and sanyasis...Ramayats and sanyasis are excessive consumers (habitual).' Jadu Ram Barooah, Assamese Kayasth, Local Board Member; Pensioned Overseer, Public Works Department, Dibrugarh, says, 'all fakirs and monks consume it considerably...' Mr. F. C. Anderson, Officiating Commissioner, Nagpur, says, 'It cannot be said that ganja smoking is limited to certain classes, though its use is most common among the...bairagis, fakirs, and gosains...The habitual excessive ganja smokers are chiefly bairagis, gosains, and fakirs.' Mr. A. C. Duff, Deputy Commissioner, Jubbulpore, says, 'Ganja is smoked by fakirs and sadhus almost universally...I should say that the great bulk of the fakir and sadhu classes habitual excessive consumers.' Mr. H. V. Drake-Brockman, Officiating  Commissioner of Excise, Central Provinces, says, 'Mendicants and devotees, both Hindu and Muhammadan; It may be said that all males of [this] class .. smoke..' Bhargow Laxmon Gadgit, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Nagpur, says, 'Bairagis gosains, fakirs, and other mendicants...The habitual excessive smokers are the class of mendicants and fakirs...' Raghunath Rao, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Damoh, says, 'ganja smoking .. is, however, greatly used by those classes of people more or less who cannot use liquor, but, generally speaking, the bairagis, fakirs...greatly use ganja all over India...The ganja smokers are mostly the poorer and lower classes of the population, such as...Bairagis, fakirs, and such people.' Syed Mohamed Husain, Extra Assistant Commissioner; Diwan, Khairagarh State, says, 'Generally ganja is smoked by the low class people in the Central Provinces, such as Hindu mendicants, bairagis, gosains, etc.' Vinayak Balkrishna Khare, Brahmin, Excise Daroga, Nagpur, says, 'Hindu mendicants of all grades; the Muhammadan fakirs;' Anandi Pershad, Excise Daroga, Hoshangabad, says, 'Ganja is generally much consumed by the fakirs, gosains...The persons of the Hindu community who belong to Shivai sect, such as gosains, etc., have introduced the consumption of the drug.' Muhammad Habibulla, 1st grade Hospital Assistant, Seoni, says, 'especially do the sadhus and bairagis (Hindu beggars)...indulge in ganja smoking...Sadhus and bairagis (Hindu beggars) mainly form class.' Mir Zamin Ali, Pensioned Hospital Assistant, Jabalpur, says, 'Almost all the sadhus and fakirs...smoke ganja. ..The excessive consumers of ganja in this province are mainly taken from the low classes of the people, who are labourers, sadhus and fakirs (a sort of beggars and devotees).' Fakirchand, Brahmin, Baid and Pandit, Jabalpur, says, 'Ganja is the drug of the very poor and of fakirs.' Khushali Ram, Honorary Magistrate, Chhindwara, says, 'All castes smoke ganja, especially gosains, fakirs (Muhammadan), bairagis'. Gangadharroa Madho Chitnavis, Honorary Magistrate, Nagpur, says, 'the generality of persons who mostly smoke it are...gosains, bairagis, fakirs,...The localities where it is generally used are sarais or inns, and places where the pilgrims, fakirs or gosains, generally stop...Gosains, fakirs and bairagis belong to class..Gosains and other wandering tribes...' Mir Imad Ali, Honorary Magistrate, Damoh, says, 'Bairagis, more than any other class, use ganja and those who associate with them even to excess...Habituals (ganja) mainly from the bairagi class.' Seth Bachraj, Honorary Magistrate, Wardha, says, 'The habitual consumers of ganja are most sadhus, fakirs, and gosains...' Hari Har Singh, Zamindar and Honorary Magistrate, Sambalpur District, says, 'Ganja is ..used mostly by jogis and Vaishnavas. ..From jogis, Vaishnavas, and lower classes.' Diwan Prem Singh, Zamindar, Bilaspur District, says, 'Sadhus and the common people are the ordinary users of ganja, both Muhammadans and Hindus...' Lall Umed Singh, Zamindar, Bilaspur District, says, 'Ganja is freely smoked by all classes, but especially by sadhus, bairagis, and labourers.' Chandi Pershad, Brahmin, Malguzar, and President, Municipal Committee, Chanda, says, 'Musalmans, fakirs, gosains, bairagis,...all these are habitual consumers. Excessive consumers are generally bairagis and gosains.' Rao Sahib Balwantrao Govindrao Bhuskute, Brahmin, Jagirdar of Timborni, Barhanpar, Nimar District, says, 'The class of bairagis (religious mendicants) are notorious as ganja smokers.' Adhar Singh Gour, Kshattri, Barrister-at-law, Hoshangabad, says, 'Bairagis, sanyasis and other ascetics use it freely wherever they may be...Mendicants,...and all orders of ascetics.' Babu Kalidas Chowdhry, Brahmin, Pleader, Hoshangabad, says, 'Ganja is used...principally by the fakirs, sanyasis'. Lala Nandkeshore, Agartcal, Merchant, Banker, Contractor, Malgoozar, Honorary Magistrate, Secretary, Municipal Committee, and Member, District Council, Saugor, says, 'Fakirs and Bairagis, performing penances, invariably smoke'. Cowasjee Meherwanjee Hatty-Daroo, Parsi, Merchant and Abkari Contractor, Seoni-Chapara, says, 'Ganja inhaled by almost all Bairagis, Gossains, jogis, pardesis...as habitual excessive consumers'. Lala Ramshahi and Lala Sitaram,  Abkari Contractors, Nagpur, say, 'Sages...generally use it (ganja) in the Central Provinces.' Mr. J. Sturrock, Collector, Coimbatore, says, 'It is chiefly used by bairagis, fakirs, and other religious mendicants'. Mr. E. Turner, Collector of Madura, says, 'Low classes consisting of fakirs and mendicants smoke ganja wherever they are.' Mr. H. M. Winterbotham, Collector of Tanjore, says, 'Ganja is smoked chiefly by bairagis and  Musalmans.' Mr. W. A. Willock, Collector, Vizagapatam, says, 'Religious mendicants form the chief part of the excessive consumers.' Mr. J. Thomson, Collector of Chingleput, says, 'Religious fanatics of all classes, known as bairagis, fakirs, sanyasis and mendicants and habitual beggars, such as pandarams, etc., smoke ganja...Habitual moderate consumers are the religious fanatics and mendicants'. Mr. G. Stokes, Collector of Salem, says, 'Fakirs, sanyasis, Muhammadans, and the poorer class of Hindus.' Mr. G. S. Forbes, Collector of Tinnevelly, says, 'Ganja is smoked by bairagis and other North India mendicants. The local wandering mendicants, known as Pandarams, and other ascetics also use it.' Mr. L. C. Miller, Acting Collector of Trichinopoly, says, 'Generally Muhammadan and Hindu ascetics and mendicants...The people are of the lower classes. They are mainly beggars and fakirs.' Mr. K. C. Manavedan Raja, Collector, Anantapur, says, 'The confirmed habit of smoking ganja would appear to have been introduced by fakirs, bairagis, and others from Upper India as they pass through this district...[bhang] is drunk more often in assemblies of fakirs.' Mr. C. J. Weir, Acting Collector, District Magistrate, and Agent to Govr., Ganjam, says, 'Ganja is smoked almost universally by bairagis and religious mendicants in all localities.' Mr. J. G. D. Partridge, Assistant collector, Ganjam, says, 'Bairagis and fakirs for the most part.' Mr. H. Campbell, Acting Sub-Collector, Guntoor, says, 'The chief consumers of ganja seem to be wandering fakirs, bairagis, and bavajis, and people from the north of India.' P. Pundarikakshudu, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Venukunda, Kistna District, says, 'By bairagis, fakirs.' M. R. R. Dewan Bahadur S. Venkata Ramadas Naidu, Deputy Collector, Godavari, says, 'especially fakirs and the bairagis of Northern India that come here, smoke ganjayi for its narcotic properties;...All classes of...fakirs,...and Bairagis especially smoke ganjayi...Bairagis contribute most to class (b) [occasional excessive consumers] under ganja...' M. Azizuddeen, Sahib Bahadur, Deputy Collector, North Arcot, says, 'Bairagis, fakirs,...Muhammadan mendicants...' B. Narayanmurty, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Ganjam, says, 'almost all the fakirs and every bairagi and ascetic smoke ganja...' K. Narayana Iyer, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Gooty, says, 'Ascetics, fakirs..use ganja...' Mr. J. H. Gwynne, Deputy Collector, Wynaad, Malabar District, says, 'Ascetics of all castes smoke ganja and bhang'. M. R. Ry. P. Veeraswami Naidu, Deputy Collector, Masulipatam, says, 'Chiefly used by byragis, sanyasis, and fakirs,...' A. Krishnamacharulu, Tahsildar, Bapatla, Kistna District, says, 'Smoking of ganja is generally prevalent among bairagis..The consumers are not known to be dangerous to society. They are not known to abuse or beat others.' M. Bimachari, Tahsildar, Rayadrug, says, 'Generally...fakirs, bairagis, and persons who are supposed to have renounced worldly cares and desires...' Munshi S. Mohamed Under Sahib, Tahsildar, Suthanapully Taluk, Kistna District, says, 'Bairagis, sanyasis, and religious mendicants of the Hindu community and fakirs or beggars of the Muhammadan community smoke ganja'. M. Samba Siva Rau Naidu, Tahsildar, Bellary, says, 'Bairagis, fakirs, and mendicant classes generally smoke ganja and charas freely.' P. Ram Rao, Tahsildar of Hadgalli, says, 'Ganja is used in smoking by bairagis or sanyasis, fakirs,...' Adaki Jagannadha Rao, Brahmin, Acting Tahsildar, Hindupur, Anantapur District, says, '...lingayats, bairagis and boyas smoke ganja in this taluk.' Chaganti Somayajulu, Brahmin, Acting Tahsildar, Palakonda, says, 'All Hindu ascetics known as bairagis and sanyasis,...smoke ganja.' A. Katchapeswara Iyer, Brahmin, Stationary Sub-Magistrate, Cuddapah Taluk, says, 'The hermit class, consisting of fakirs and sanyasis, smoke...the habitual excessive consumers form the fakirs and dervishes and their followers.' K. Rama Kristna Bramham, Brahmin, Stationary Sub-Magistrate, Kudlighi, Bellary District, says, 'religious mendicants of whatsoever class also use it.' M. Seshachala Naidu, Baliya, Pensioned Tahsildar, Vellore, says, 'the wandering pandarums, bairagis, and gossains.' N. Soondramiah , Brahmin, Deputy Tahsildar, Ootacamund, says, 'chiefly Bairagis, fakirs, and sholagers.' R. Saminatha Iyer, Brahmin, Acting Deputy Tahsildar, Coonoor, says, 'Ganja is used by...many of the Bairagi pilgrims from Hindustan...Fakirs...generally resort to intoxication from ganja.' R. C. Rama Iyengor, Brahmin, Village Magistrate, Berangy, Mudanapulee Taluk, Cuddapah District, says, 'The said kali is used for smoking by...those who lead a wandering life, and also by Bairagis and Sanyasis—a class of persons who profess to lead an ascetic life—and also by persons known by the name of Sugaly.' K. Narainaswamy Naidu, Velama, Huzoor Sheristadar, Masulipatam, says, 'All Gossains, fakirs, wandering tribes of professional beggars among the Hindus, all idle men of whatever caste or creed who pretend to be religious devotees and their disciples...'  P. Lakshminarayana, Brahmin, Manager of Court of Wards' Estate, Nuzvid, says, 'All the Bairagis use ganja invariably in the way of smoking.' Rai Bahadur K. Narainaswamy, Telaga, Inspector of Police, Vizianagram, says, 'Bairagis (mendicants), as a rule, are all ganja smokers...' T. S. Kristnasamy Chetty, Vishnuvite, Pensioned Police Inspector, Trinamalay, South Arcot District, says, 'Fakirs, ascetics, bairagis,..Fakirs and Muhammadans generally eat and smoke, and the bairagis of Northern country drink bhang.' Mr. H. E. G. Mills, Superintendent, Central Jail, Trichinopoly, says, 'Fakirs,...and those that have entirely given themselves up to religious purposes eat ganja.' Mr. R. W. Morgan, Deputy Conservator of Forests, Ootacamund, Nilgiris, says, 'Bairagis are much given to the habit.' Mr. G. Hadfield, Deputy Conservator of Forests, South Malabar, says, 'The poorer classes and bairagis, sanyasis and other religious mendicants.' Captain F. L. Jones, Commandant, 3rd Madras Lancers, Bellary, says, 'Sanyasis (hermits) and travellers smoke ganja...' Subadar Major Mahammad Murtuza, 1st Madras Pioneers, Trichinopoly, says, 'Chiefly by fakirs and Bairagis...' Surgeon-Major R. Pemberton, Civil Surgeon, Cochin, says, 'Mendicants use bhang a good deal.' Apothecary G. A. W. Vellones, Chetambaram, South Arcot, says, 'Pandarams, bairagis, etc., for the most part use ganja freely, as bhang is costly...' Apothecary N. H. Daniel, In charge Police Hospital, Koraput, Vizagapatam District, says, 'All bairagis smoke ganja throughout India. A few Muhammadans and fakirs in Kurnool and Cuddapah...' Apothecary Muhammad Asadulla, Ellore, Godavary District, says, 'bairagis or hermits...' K. Jagannadham Naidu, Medical Officer, Parlakimedi, Ganjam District, says, 'Generally...bairagis smoke ganja...' Assistant Surgeon Saldhana, Salem, says, 'Mostly used by low classes of Hindus and Muhammadans; of the latter, notably the fakirs...' Hospital Assistant Maduranayagum Pillai, Vellala, Uravakonda, Anantpur District, says, 'Goshas and beggars, especially town people, also use, from the lowest to the highest...' Hospital Assistant I. Parthasarathy Chetty, Penukonda, Anantapur District, says, 'Muhammadans, especially fakirs, use this...Ganja is prepared by fakirs and gosains... As above said, fakirs, ascetics, gosains generally smoke ganja...—habitual moderate consumers—is formed chiefly of ascetics and such spiritual thinkers (save a few instances) both in Hinduism and Muhammadanism.' P. S. Mootooswamy Modelliar, Retired Native Surgeon, Tanjore, says, 'religious mendicants (Sudras)'. H. S. A. M. Munjumiah, Native Medical Practitioner, Cuddapah, says, 'Ganja is smoked by sanyasis or bairagis and fakirs or dervishes (almost without exception)...Habitual moderate consumers and habitual excessive consumers are mainly sanyasis and fakirs.' I. Ponnusawmi Pillai, Private Practitioner, Pothawar, Salem, District, says, 'Sanyasis, bairagis, and other inhabitants who are accustomed to it throughout the whole district, especicially in northern parts of India.' Abdul Karim Sahib, Native Physician, Namakkal, Salem District, says, 'Hill tribes and bairagis.' P. Seshachallam Naidooo, Balija, Landlord, Merchant, and Chairman, Vetapollem, Kistna District, says, 'Gushais (bairagis)..smoke ganja throughout the district.' Aziz-ud-din Ali Khan, Sahib Bahadur, Jagirdar, Cherlopalle, Gurramkanda, District Cuddapah, says, 'Fakirs and others, gosains... ' M. R. Ry. V. Venkataro Iyer, Brahman, Managar, Ettayapuram Estate, Tinnevelly District, says, 'Pandaram-Parathasus smoke ganja of either sort.' Lanka Kristniengar, Vaishnava Brahmin, Chairman, Municipal Council, Srirangam, Trichinopoly District, says, 'I have seen chiefly the bairagis who travel about the countries on pilgrimages from the north, and the religious mendicants,...smoke ganja freely and frequently, but not the charas'. Mr. W. Taylor, Chairman, Municipal Council, Parlakimedi, Ganjam District, says, 'But more generally by bairagis, mendicants'. K. Subbarayadu Puntalu, Brahmin, Chairman of the Adoni Municipal Council, Bellary District, says, 'bairagis, fakirs...generally drink bhang here.' Rungo Srinivasa Rao, Brahmin, Chairman, Union Panchayat, Madakasira, Anantpur District, says, 'Fakirs and Boyas, etc., lower class.' Rev. H. J. Goffin, Missionary, Kadiri, Cuddapah District, says, 'Fakirs or religious mendicants also are much addicted to its use.' Rev. W. Robinson, Missionary, London Missionary Sobriety, Salem, says, 'Religious mendicants, fakirs,...The proportion is not known; but I should think all fakirs use it.' Rev. W. H. Campbell, Missionary, London Missionary Society, Cuddapah, says, 'Its use is almost universal among the wandering classes, such as fakirs and beggars...Excessive consumers I have found in almost all classes, but they are most numerous among the fakirs and beggars.' Rev. S. J. Long, Missionary, Coimbatore, says, 'Fakirs and sanyasis invariably use ganja for smoking, but their wives do not... Ganja smokers appear to be mainly fakirs and sanyasis and to have derived the habit of smoking from their fathers.' Rev. W. V. Higgins, Missionary, Parlakimedi, Ganjam District, says, 'Those engaged in study of religious books and mendicants.' Rev. John S. Chandler, Missionary Madura, says, 'ascetics'. Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, 'the religious mendicants, commonly called bairagis or sanyasis, all use it...The people attached to the monasteries (matamalu), where these men congregate in large numbers, and which is the only home they have, also use it.' Very Rev. A. Chelvum, Roman Catholic Diocese, Vizagapatam, says, 'The hemp drugs are taken by...bairagis...' N. Kothundaramayya, Brahmin, Editor of "Suneeti" Rajahmundry, Godavari District, says, 'Bairagis, sanyasis, fakir, vagabonds;' Ganjam Vencataratnam, Brahmin, 1st Grade Pleader, Coconada, Godavery District, says, 'Almost all the bairagis...smoke ganjai or use its mixture in this district.' Viswanadham Guruvaiah Sastri, Brahmin, Pleader and District and Taluk Board Member, Chicacole, says, 'Ganja is smoked by Uriya bairagis and other constant travellers.' B. Chatterjea, Brahmin, Pleader, District Court, Ganjam, and Chairman, Berhampore Municipality, says, 'Almost all classes, and notoriously religious mendicants (bairagis)...smoke ganja.' P. C. Anunthacharlu, Brahmin, Chairman, Municipal Council, and Government Pleader, Bellary, says, 'Bairagis smoke very largely.' V. Srinivasa Rao, Brahmin, Pleader, District Munsiff's Court, Tirukoilur, South Arcot, says, 'Among Hindus a set of wandering mendicants, called pardesis, and bairagis, smoke ganja...Among Muhammadans, the fakirs smoke ganja.' Manchaller Jagannadham, Brahmin, Pleader, Bapathla, Ristna District, says, 'Wandering bairagis smoke ganja as a rule.' Teachers' Association, Trichinopoly, says, 'Andis, bairagis, jogis, and fakirs smoke in particular; also vagabonds in places where such characters generally meet.' Hon'ble A. Sabapathy Moodelliar, Rai Bahadur, Merchant, Bellary, says, 'Ganja is generally smoked by...fakirs, and the sadhus of Northern India;' Nalum Bhimarauz Vysyia, Merchant, Berhampore, Ganjam District, says, 'gosains are in the habit of smoking it in places surrounding the Malias, such as Suradu, Bodagada, Ghumsoor, and the hills also.' Mr. D. Maneckji, Parsi, Merchant and Contractor, Calicut, says, 'all the bairagis who resort to this coast are using it.' Perianna Chetty, Potter, Ganja Shop-keeper, Kitchipolayam, Salem, says, 'Ganja is smoked by ...Gosains...Bhang is used for eating by fakirs...Gosains'. Kamalapuram Nagayya, Komati, Ganja Contractor, Adoni, says, 'Bairagis, fakirs, sanyasis...' Abdul Khader, Agent of the Ganja Shopkeeper, Rajahmundry, says, 'Fakirs, gosains, bairagis and jogis use much.' T. Ratnasami Nadar, Arrack Supply Contractor, Malabar, says, 'chiefly wandering mendicants and bairagis.' Samdasu Bavaji, Brahmin, Priest in the Matt of Sri Jagannadha Swamy, Rajahmundry, says, 'Gosains, jogis, bairagis, fakirs...smoke ganja.' Baldevdas, Brahmin, Priest of Hanuman Math, Rajahmundry, says, 'Bairagis, sanyasis, fakirs...use this.' Syed Shah Abdal Husaini, Manager of Pencundah's Dargah, Pencundah, Anantapur District, says, 'Fakirs, sadhus, sanyasis, jogis, and bairagis smoke ganja and charas.' Mr. E. J. Ebden, Collector, Ahmednagar, says, 'There appears to be no doubt at all that the principal consumers as a class are the begging ascetics, such as fakirs, bairagis, etc., who use from quarter pound to one pound of the drug daily.' Mr. F. L. Charles, Collector, Belgaum, says, 'Ganja is smoked chiefly by bairagis, fakirs and gosains...Habitual excessive consumers are bairagis, fakirs and gosains only.' Mr. F. S. P. Lely, Collector of Surat, says, 'Fakirs, sadhus and such like religious ascetics lead the way...Fakirs and other ascetics are the chief habitual excessives in ganja.' Mr. J. Monteath, Collector and District Magistrate, Bijapur, says, 'So far as I can learn, the smoking of ganja is almost confined in this district to...fakirs, Hindu ascetics and mendicants...' Mr. H. Woodward, Collector, Kaira, Gujarat, says, 'The practice of smoking ganja is general among...fakirs, bairagis, sadhus, and other ascetics being specially addicted to it.' Mr. C. G. Dodgson, Assistant Magistrate and Collector, Khandesh, says, 'fakirs and gosains smoke more than any other class...Fakirs, bairagis, and gosains may be classed as habitual consumers; the majority of them are habitual excessive consumers.' Mr. A. H. Plunkett, City Magistrate, Poona, says, 'bairagis, sadhus, gosains,...and ascetics use ganja for smoking throughout the district...gosains, fakirs, bairagis and other people of the mendicant classes use the drugs as habitual moderate or excessive consumers.' Rao Bahadur Lallubhai Gordhandas, Vania, Huzur Deputy Collector, Nasik, says, 'Ganja is smoked invariably by bairagis and those who revere and associate with them.' Rao Bahadur Narayan Ganesh Deshpande, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Belgaum, says, 'In this district fakirs, bairagis, gosavis, and other mendicants use ganja, as also dowries and other itinerant classes...Habitually excessive smokers are from the mendicant classes, such as fakirs, bairagis and gosavis...Fakirs, bairagis, gosavis, dowries, and similar mendicant classes are initiated as soon as they enter mendicant orders, or when they attain the age of puberty. Bairagi boys are initiated at even the early age of 12 and 14.' Rao Bahadur Bhimbhai Kirpa RamA, Brahmin, Huzur Deputy Collector of Surat, says, 'Ganja is smoked by mendicants...; The habitual consumers are chiefly...Brahmin mendicants.' Rao Bahadur Vyankatesh Bapuji Wadekar, Deputy Collector, Ahmednagar, says, 'Ganja...used by a majority of fakirs, bairagis, gosavis and other mendicants. There is hardly a village in this district where it is not smoked more or less by the above-named people...These people are mainly taken from the following classes— fakirs, beggars, sadhus (ascetics),...' Rao Bahadur Bhaskar Rao Ramchandra Heblikar, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Sholapur, says, 'Ganja is used by...fakirs and bairagis more than others...The people who smoke ganja generally are...Fakirs, Gosavis, Bairagis and some Muhammadans...' Rao Bahadur Rango Ramchandra Bhardi, Deputy Collector and Native Assistant to the Commissioner, Poona, Central Division, says, 'The classes of the people who smoke it are generally bairagis, gosávis, fakirs, sants,...mendicants who travel about the country,...Habitual excessive consumers are mainly taken from bairagis, gosávis, and fakirs,...' Rao Bahadur Rudragowda Chanvirgowda Artal, Lengayet, Deputy Collector, Bijapur, says, '...fakirs, gosavis...mainly use these drugs.' Rao Bahadur Ramchandra Rajaram Mule, Deshastha Brahmin, Administrator of Jath, in Southern Mahratta Country, says, 'Gossains, bairagis, fakirs...use ganja...Habitual excessive consumers are taken from lower orders who lead idle life and are almost vagabonds.' Rao Bahadur V. H. Shikre, Brahmin, Huzur Deputy Collector, Alibagh, Kolaba District, says, 'It is generally used for smoking by a majority of the people belonging to what are called wandering tribes, such as gosains, bairagis, fakirs...Fakirs, gosains and bairagis are generally habitual excessive consumers...' Mr. J. F. Fernandez, Retired Deputy Collector and City Magistrate, Ahmedabad, says, 'Ganja...use being confined to wandering gosains,...' Narayan Rao Bhikaji Joglekar, Brahmin, Pensioned Deputy Collector ; now Karbhari of the Aundh Stale, says, 'The classes who drink bhang ghota are bairagis, gosavis,...' Mr. W. Almon, Assistant Collector, Abkari Department, Bombay, says, 'Ganja is smoked...by fakirs...These drugs are mainly consumed by...religious mendicants.' Rao Saheb Pandurand Thakar, Deshastha Brahmin, Mamlatdar, Pandharpur, Sholapur District, at present auditing the jamabandi accounts of the Poona  District, Poona, says, 'The people most addicted to the vice of ganja-smoking are mendicants, ascetics, fakirs, gosains, bairagis, and such other irresponsible classes who pass an easy, idle life, maintaining themselves chiefly on begging...The drink prepared from bhang called ghota, being however somewhat costly, is...only occasionally by ascetics, mendicants, etc.' Rao Saheb Shesho Krisna Mudkavi, Mamlatdar of Taluka Bijapur, Bijapur, says, 'Ascetics, bairagis,...fakirs;' Rao Sahib Krishnaji Ballal Deval, Chitpavan, Brahmin, Mamlatdar and Magistrate, 1st Class, Chiplon, says, 'Bairagis, fakirs (travelling mendicants),...as a class do smoke ganja.' Balkrishna Narayan Vaidya, Parbhu, State Karbhari of Sangli, says, 'However, people of the lower classes, especially the class of mendicants called gosains and bairagis and fakirs, are generally known to indulge freely in this kind of drug, which serves them as a stimulant...Habitual as well as occasional excessive consumers are generally found from among the classes of mendicants called gosains, bairagis, and fakirs.' Dadhabhai Burjorjee Guzder, Parsi, District Abkari Inspector, Ahmednagar, says, 'it is used by a great number of fakirs, bairagis, gosains, and other beggars...Fakki is used by mendicants and bairagis, etc., who cannot afford to spend money.' Khan Sahib Nasarvanji Edalji Sethna, Parsi, Abkari Inspector, Satara, says, 'The classes of people who prepare the preparations are the classes who use them...fakirs; bairagis, sadhus, etc. ..mullahs (Muhammadan priests), dervishes (who make a show of tigers and bears)...smoke ganja.' Yashvanth Nilkanth, Patana Prabhu, Superintendent, Office of Survey Commissioner, and Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Bombay, says, 'The classes who generally indulge in ganja-smoking are Hindu ascetics, gosavis and bairagis, and Muhammadan fakirs...Charas is smoked by...Muhammadan fakirs, ascetics and persons from Northern India...' Mr. G. P. Millet, Divisional Forest Officer, West Thana, Thana, says, 'Ganja smoking is resorted to...principally by bairagis, sadhis, gosavis, hakims and men of the mendicant class throughout the district.' Mr. H. Kennedy, District Superintendent of Police, Ahmednagar, says, 'Gosains and bairagis are the chief consumers of both ganja and bhang. Muhammadans, fakirs chiefly for ganja only'. Mr. F. T. V. Austin, District Superintendent of Police, Surat, says, 'The smoking of ganja is...specially by fakirs, sa bairagis, etc...' Mr. T. G. Foard, Superintendent of Police, Cambay, says, 'The people who usually smoke charas are gosains, sadhus, fakirs and mendicants...Habitual excessive consumers are mostly fakirs, sadhus, gosains, and mendicants of various denominations, who wander from place to place, and have no worldly cares...' Ganesh Krishna Garde, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Poona City, says, 'It is prevalent among the...indolent and the idle and the wandering fakirs, gosavis and bairagis...' Uttamram Jeewanram, Itchapooria, Audesh, Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Bombay and Surat, says, 'Ganja is smoked by...sadhus. It is also smoked by Muhammadans and fakirs...Charas is mostly smoked by Muhammadans, fakirs, and few sadhus and Kunbis.' Keshowram Haridat, Chcepooria, Audesh Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Render, Surat and Bombay, says, 'Ganja is used by the low classes of Muhammadans, fakirs, sadhus...Charas is used by sadhus and fakirs...' Mr. Purbhuram Jeewanram, Nagar Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Bombay, says, 'Sadhus...use ganja...' Vithaldas Pranjiwandass, Bhunksali Landlord and Trader, late Intoxicating Drugs Farmer, Bombay, says, 'Muhammadan...fakirs smoke chiefly. Hindu sadhus smoke ganja largely...Charas is smoked by Muhammadan...Pathans and fakirs, chiefly by the former. Among the Hindus it is smoked by bawas and sadhus.' Desaibhai Kalidas, Brahmin (Khedaval), Government Pleader and Public Prosecutor, Kaira, says, 'most of them are sadhus and bairagis and such other religious mendicants, who having left the world devote their life in pilgrimages and worship and meditation of God. Besides these, those who lead a vagabondish life and maintain themselves on the alms they get from Sadavrats are greatly addicted to ganja smoking...In Dakore almost all the sadhus, bairagis, jangams, nagdas, dwarkawashis, teets, nanakshais, smoke ganja, and consequently a considerable portion of the male population of Dakore is also addicted to the same habit by the company and example of the above people, and in the secrecy of their resorts. In Gujarat...what little of it exists is to be found at the centres of pilgrimages, such as Dakore, Sidhapur, Chandod, Kadi, etc., and in towns and villages where there are places and akhadas of sadhus and bairagis, etc. ; and it is from them that the habit radiates. The people of those villages and towns where here are more of such places, or where many such sadhus, etc., come and go, are greatly affected by this habit, and in proportion to their number they impart their contagion to the surrounding villages also. This habit is the result of company...N.B.—In answering the questions wherever " sadhus, etc.," or " sadhus, bairagis, etc.," or similar words are used, the following are meant to be included:—sadhus, bairagis, jangams, nagdas, dwarkawashis, ateets, nanakshai, and such other people who are generally designated by the people as sadhus, or bairagis or abdhoots...The sadhus, etc., do not as a rule use bhang as they use ganja...As said above, ganja smokers are most of them sadhus, bairagis, ateets, etc.' Rao Bahadur Huchrao Achut Harihar, Deshast Brahmin, Pleader, District Court, Belgaum, says, 'Almost all the gosawis and bairagis and (some) professional songsters use ganja for smoking.' Naro Dhakadeo, Brahmin, Pleader, Jalgaon, District Khandesh, says, 'Almost all the gosavis, bairagis, fakirs, and others of the like class smoke ganja at their lodgings.' Jamsedjee Nasserwanjess Ginwalla, Shenshai Parsi, Abkari and Opium Farmer, and proprietor of cotton-ginning factories, Ankleswar, says, 'Hindu and Muhammadan religious mendicants, such as fakirs, sadhus, &c., residing in burial grounds, temples„ and charitable religious places, chiefly smoke ganja.' Kisan Dulichand, Licensed Vendor of Ganja, Nasik, says, 'Consumers of the drug are, however, to be found in large majority in the bairagi and gosavi class.' Nannu Mian B. Shaikh, Municipal Secretary, Surat, says, 'Charas and ganja are smoked by the Hindus and Muhammadans, i.e., bairagis, sadhus, fakirs and others throughout India wherever they are available. [Bhang] is a usual drink for the fakirs and sadhus...From the Hindus and Mussalmans.' Rao Bahadur Venkat Rango Katti, Pensioner, Dharwar, says, 'All bairagis, gosains, fakirs and such other wanderers,...' Gurappa Rachappa, Lengayet, Office of Shetti (Revenue and Police), Dharwar, says, 'bava, bairagi, gosavi, fakir.' Laldas Laxmonji, Kshatriya, Solicitor's Clerk, Bombay, says, 'Sadhus smoke ganja largely. Among Muhammadans a number of fakirs smoke ganja.' Mr. R. Giles, Collector, Shikarpur, says, 'fakirs, jogis, and travellers from other parts, specially the north of India, use charas and very rarely (as the statistics show) ganja. The places of its consumption are the fakirs' and travellers' halting and resting places...the excessive drinkers [of bhang] are for the most part fakirs, beggars, scavengers, and men of low caste.'  Mr. C. E. S. Stafford Steele, Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Thar and Parkar District, says, 'The inferior orders and ascetics, both Hindus and Muhammadans, mendicants and fakirs...Charas.—Beggars and ascetics...Ganja.—Beggars and ascetics. (b) Bhang.—Beggars and ascetics...' Khan Bahadur Kadirdad Khan Gul Khan, C.I.E., Deputy Collector, Naushahro Sub-division, says, 'Ganja and charas are smoked in this province chiefly by fakirs who come from other parts of India and also by those local residents who associate with such fakirs.' Rao Bahadur Lashmansing Matthraji, Police Inspector, Hyderabad, Sind, says, 'The consumers are chiefly taken from the following classes — Sanyasis, jogis,...otara fakirs...' Mr. Geo. Judd, Head Preventive Officer, Karachi, says, 'Ganja by Hindu mendicants...' Mr. Geo. J. Barker, Abkari Inspector, Karachi, says, 'Ganja smoked by...Fakirs of both Hindu and Mahammadan castes, and Gosains (all over Sind). Charas by...Sindhi fakirs (ascertained at retail shops and  by observation of customers). Bhang is only drunk (not eaten) by...Fakirs, Gosains, etc...Habitual excessive consumers...fakirs (Hindu and Muhammadan), Gosains and some Seedees. (Ascertained by observation and knowledge of the habits of the different classes.)' Rao Bahadur Alumal Trikamdas Bhojwani, Deputy Educational Inspector, Karachi, says, 'Ganja is smoked by nearly the whole or the greater majority of the mendicants and clerical classes...People belonging to the mendicant and clerical orders (Hindus and Muhammadans) are generally habitual excessive consumers.' Makhdun Dost Mohammed Makhdum Fazul Mohammed, Zamindar, Bubak, Karachi, says, 'Generally fakirs use intoxicating drugs.' Seth Vishindas Nihalchand, Zamindar, Merchant, and Contractor, Manjoo, Karachi, says, 'fakirs...have charas and ganja always ready with them, and have also got handy the pipe in which they are smoked, so that they can use them wherever they feel inclined.' Rev. A. E. Ball, Missionary, Church Missionary Society, Karachi, says, 'All religious mendicants, sanyasis, bawas, bhagats, jogis, etc., smoke ganja and charas,...and all Muhammadan fakirs' Pribhdas Shewakram Advani, Secretary, Band of Hope, Hyderabad, Sind, says, 'Charas and ganja are used...chiefly by nomadic fakirs, jogis, etc., in (Hindu) Shivite temples, and (Muhammadans) otaras and baithaks...Bhang is drunk...especially by fakirs and ascetics. Charas and ganja are smoked by fakirs and wandering tribes who live by begging.' Manghanmal Alumal, Bhang, Ganja and Charas, and Opium farmer, Karachi, says, '...sanyasis, fakirs...smoke them in tikanas, dharamsalas, dairas (Mussalman inns) and generally in houses.' Dayaram Kishunchand, Bhang, Charas and Ganja, and Opium Farmer, Hyderabad, says, 'The consumers are sanyasis, wandering sutherias, mochees, muhanas and kanjars.' C. Sham Rao, Attachè to the Resident at Hyderabad, now at Pusad, Basim District, says, 'Bhang is used by rich classes, and ganja by sanyasis, gosains, fakirs, etc...As ganja could be procured cheaply, so mendicants, such as fakirs, gosains, largely make use of it...habitual excessive consumers and occasional excessive consumers are mostly gosains, fakirs, ascetics, etc.' Krishnarao Hari, Officiating Extra Assistant Commissioner, Buldana, says, 'The principal classes of people from which the habitual or occasional moderate or excessive consumers of the hemp drug are taken, are the...bairagis and the gosavis.' Mr. J. C. Watcha, Excise Inspector, Ellichpur, says, 'Everywhere by all jogis and fakirs, and few others.' Waman Ganesh, Tahsildar, Wun, says, 'Generally fakirs, gosains and labourers smoke ganja.' Vickooji Narain, Tahsildar, Kathapur, says, 'chiefly fakirs, gosains, bairagis...smoke ganja.' Vinayak Appaji Kaur, Brahmin, Officiating Tahsildar, Darwa, Wun District, says, 'Ganja is prepared and smoked by fakirs, gosais, etc. This ganja is not prepared for sale.' Laxman Gopal Deshpande, Brahmin, Naib Tahsildar, Mangrul Taluk, District Basim, says, 'The classes of the people that smoke ganja are mainly formed of travellers, bairagis, fakirs, gosawis...throughout the whole province.' Khan Bahadur Nawab Salamulla Khan, Jagirdar, Deulghat, Buldana District, says, 'if there should be called the special class, I should call the Muhammadan fakirs and Hindu gosais and bairagis as a class who smoke ganja.' Lakshman Atmaram Mahajan, Merchant, Manjrul Pir, says, 'Bairagis, gosavis, fakirs, and others who lead the life of pilgrims generally smoke ganja....Gosavis, bairagis, and fakirs are habitual moderate and excessive consumers'. Surgeon-Major D. F. Mullen, Civil Surgeon, Ajmere, says, 'Fakirs and sadhus excessively smoke ganja and charas'. Mr. A. Boppanna, Planter, Bepunaad, Green Hills, Coorg, says, '...fakirs and bairagis, ...' Babu Kedar Nath, Head Clerk of the Political Agent, Kalat, says, 'Fakirs...smoke ganja.'

Evidence of high percentage of users among spiritual mendicants

We see the almost complete prevalence of cannabis usage by the spiritual mendicant class in the high percentages of this class that are reported to use cannabis by witnesses to the Hemp Commission. Babu Rajani Prasad Neogy, Excise Deputy Collector, Mymensingh, says, 'The following classes of the people smoke ganja. The proportion of each class is also noted against it. Per cent...Sanyasis 95...Ramants, sanyasis (religious devotees), bairagies.' Babu Gour Das Bysack, Retired Deputy Collector, Calcutta, says, 'The exception among the ascetic fakirs and sanyasis is one to 100 souls. As a general rule they all smoke ganja, but not charas, which is not so strong, nor so very cheap.' Babu Sir Chunder Soor, Satgope, 1st Assistant Supervisor of Ganja Cultivation, Naogaon, Rajshahi, says, '[Ganja] is also smoked by udasins,  sanaysis, bairagis,... About 75 per cent. people of the above classes smoke ganja...The habitual moderate consumers are generally of the class of people called udasins, sanyasis, jogis, bairagis, tapasis,...etc. Their number is the largest....The occasional excessive smokers are bairagis, mendicants, vagabonds, etc.' Babu Hari Krishna Mazumdar, Baidya, Zamindar, Islampur, District Murshidabad, says, 'The sanyasis in general use ganja...99 per cent. of sanyasis smoke ganja.' Babu Raghunandan Prasad Sinha, Brahman, Zamindar, District Muzaffarpur, says, 'Eighty per cent. of sadhus (ascetics) of all orders and places, smoke ganja...Nearly 85 per cent. of sadhus (ascetics) of all orders and places eat or drink bhang.' Syed Riyaz Uddin Quazi, Pleader, Bogra, says, 'In the ganja tracts 75 per cent. of the people are more or less addicted to ganja-smoking. The lower and poorer classes of people, the sanyasis and the bairagis, use the drug more frequently.' Babu Pares Nath Chatterjee, Brahmin, Pleader, Satkhira, Khulna District, says, 'sanyasis and fakirs (Hindu and Muhammadan friars) are ganja-smokers. Nearly 60 per cent. of the above smoke ganja, but those who live near a zilla or sub-division, i.e., in a place where ganja is easily available, are proportionately greater smokers than those who live in the interior.' Ram Krishna Rao, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Bhandara, says, 'Ganja — Gosains, sadhus, fakirs, bairagis, 90 per cent...Religious men, such as gosains, bairagis and fakirs.' Munshi Mahomed Ghouse, Extra Assistant Conservator of Forests, Raipur, says, 'I can, however, confidently say that 90 per cent. of religious mendicants, such as gosains, bairagis, and fakirs are accustomed to it.' Modan Mohan Seth, Honorary Magistrate, Jubbulpore, says, 'Ganja and charas are smoked by fakirs and other persons. Amongst the former nearly 75 per cent...' Thakur Maharaj Singh, Rai Bahadur, Malguzar, Saugor, says, 'Bairagis...smoke ganja: 50 per cent. of bairagis...smoke ganja...' Rao Venjat Rao, Brahmin, Malguzar, and Political Pensioner, Saugor, says, 'Ganja is universally smoked by the bairagis throughout India...About 95 per cent. of the bairagis...smoke ganja...' Rev. I. Jacob, Church of England Missionary, Chairman, District Council, etc., Chanda, says, 'Ganja is smoked by— (1) 75 per cent. of bariagis, gosains and jogis. (2) 50 per cent. of fakirs and Pasis. The latter are known in these parts as "Rangdas."...Habitual excessive consumers are the gosains, bairagis and jogis...Occasional excessive consumers are the gosains and bairagis.' Mr.Tara Dass Banerji, President, District Council, Raipur, says, 'In Bengal the classes who indulge in it are generally...Hindu and Muhammadan fakirs...Of the fakirs...it may be said that at least 50 per cent. of them indulge in it;..' Rao Sahib Rangrao Harry Khisty, Pleader, Bhandara, says, 'Gossains, Bairagis, and fakirs, generally (with very few exceptions), 95 per cent.' S. Vasudeva Rao, Tahsildar, Tadpatri, says, 'Fakirs...Fifty per cent. of the population smoke ganja.' G. Jagannayakulu, Acting Tahsildar, Gooty, says, 'Sanyasis, jogis, and fakirs use ganja for smoking wherever they are, and in all parts. Twenty per cent, of the population may be considered to be using ganja...' Rao Bahadur Sitaram Damodar, Huzur Deputy Collector, Khandesh, says, '...amongst gosavis 90, bairagis and fakirs 70,...' Bhalchandra Krishna Bhatavadekar, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Bombay, says, 'Ganja and charas are used for smoking by the mendicant gosains and fakirs in the great majority of cases. I believe, these people smoke these drugs very considerably, almost to 75 per cent.' Rao Sahib Pranshankar, Brahmin, Inspector of Police, Detective Branch, Bombay, says, 'Sadhus, bairagis, fakirs,... Among the sadhus, fakirs, etc. the proportion may be about 60 per cent.,...' Mahomed Laik, Mukhtarkar of Hyderabad, says, 'sanyasis, nangas, suthrias, kaheris and other fakirs smoke them, and they belong to low classes of people...half of sanyasis, and about half of nangas and suthrias...' Tirithdas Hasrajmal, Member of the firm of Denmal Sachanond, Karachi, says, '...Suthrias or fakirs, and wandering fakirs, and Mussalmans smoke ganja and charas in otaras and three-fourths of Hindu awaghars and jogis smoke them...If the habitual drinkers cannot get bhang pounded and sifted, they eat it raw and drink water after it. Often low class Mussalmans in otaras and illiterate Hindu fakirs in tikanas do this...Wandering fakirs and low class men use bhang, charas and ganja in excess.' Pesumal Nerumal, Farmer and Merchant, Hyderabad, says, '...sanyasis, bairagis, jangams, udasis, shatrias, jogis and other fakirs; three-fourths of the above classes smoke ganja and charas; ...Among Mussalmans half of lower classes of people and fakirs, and half of these smoke in large quantities in tikanas, madhis and otaras, and in very small quantity and rarely in their houses...' G. S. Khaperde, Brahmin, Pleader, Amraoli, says, 'Fakirs, gosains, udasis, religious mendicants generally...Nearly ninety per cent. of them smoke it...fakirs, udasis, and gosains drink bhang.'

Spiritual mendicants classified as habitual excessive smokers of ganja

Many witnesses to the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission state that the use of ganja by the spiritual mendicants was habitual excessive use. What is excessive and what is moderate depends on one's experiences and perspective. The spiritual mendicants possessed great physical and mental strength, and had to undergo situations that most ordinary people would have not been able to endure. It is this that necessitated what appeared as excessive usage by those who lived lives of leisure and comfort, cocooned from the intense experiences that the spiritual mendicant faced, endured and loved. With no clear guidelines from the Commission as to what could be termed as moderate usage, and what could be termed as excessive usage, we see a wide range of responses to the question on usage rates. Some used the money spent on procuring ganja per day as the basis to define moderate and excess use. This was flawed on the basis that the price of ganja varied from place to place, and also the fact that the quality of ganja also varied from place to place. Others used the weight of ganja consumed per day as the basis for determining what was moderate and excessive, which was probably better, even though the strength of the ganja would mean lesser weight consumed for strong ganja as against more weight consumed for weak ganja. Here are a sample of responses on what various witnesses termed as excessive usage of ganja by spiritual mendicants in a day: 'Habitual excessive consumers, 4 to 8 annas' worth of ganja, i.e., 1 to 2 tolas'; '2 annas'; 'Ganja, one tola, price four annas'; 'Four annas'; '1 tola, at 4 annas per diem'; 'habitual excessive consumers have been known to take a rupee worth a day. Flat ganja is sold at 3 tolas per rupee and round at 2 3/4 tolas'; 'The habitual excessive ganja smoker consumes about half tola, costing 2 annas'; 'Excessive consumers of ganja 1/2 to 4 tolas', and so on. In terms of weight, what is considered excessive appears to vary from 6 grams of ganja per day to even as much as 96 grams of ganja per day. Considering the most cited numbers, the average of what most witnesses term as excessive usage seems to be between 12 grams of ganja to 48 grams at 4 annas to a rupee per day, if they procured it from the market, that is. In many cases, they grew their own ganja plants to meet their needs or were given ganja as alms by the people of villages and towns.

The use of bhang by the spiritual mendicant

Bhang - cannabis eaten or drunk - was used by the spiritual mendicant class whenever he could access it. This was not often, and so ganja was the more predominant form in which cannabis was consumed by this class. The reasons for the lesser use of bhang, as compared to ganja, were mainly affordability, and the lack of possessions such as a place and vessels to prepare bhang in and drink from. Time was not a constraint since the spiritual mendicant had all the time in the world, and not much else. To prepare bhang in the elaborate style that made it most popular with the upper classes and castes required numerous ingredients that the spiritual mendicant could not afford. This included nuts, spices, milk, etc. The few occasions when the spiritual mendicant consumed bhang were probably when it was given to them by somebody from the upper classes and castes, or when a group of mendicants got together and pooled their resources for the rare treat, especially in the hot summer when bhang served as a cooling intoxicant. Most times the spiritual mendicant chose to spend the money on ganja, rather than on milk, spices and nuts. Bhang was the preferred mode of cannabis consumption for the upper caste priests, who said that it was within the religious sanction that forbade smoking. It was also within the religious sanction that forbade alcohol. Religious sanction was, of course, something that the priests themselves had made up. Besides, having gone to great extents to malign ganja, saying that those who consumed it were the lowest castes and classes, the priests could not now be seen smoking ganja in public. The upper classes and castes would like to state that bhang is not intoxicating, but that is a lie. Bhang is essentially the same cannabis that is smoked as ganja, only it is eaten or drunk with other ingredients added. Typically, the amount of bhang consumed by a person is large enough to equal a chillum of ganja. Hence, there is no difference in intoxication levels. The only difference is the delayed action of the intoxicating effect in the case of bhang that enters the digestive system and then works its way into the brain through the blood stream, unlike ganja which when inhaled reaches the brain much faster. This difference in ganja and bhang - rate at which intoxication sets in - appears to have been one of the criteria for the many ignorant persons from the upper classes and castes to label ganja and bhang as different drugs, with ganja as bad and bhang as good, with ganja as low class and bhang as high class. So, the priests and the other upper classes, created the good and evil dichotomy in the same cannabis plant, calling cannabis eaten or drunk as bhang as good, and cannabis smoked as ganja as evil, as two different drugs. The effect on the spiritual mendicant in either case was still the same, as it was his beloved cannabis after all - beyond good and evil like the spiritual mendicant - consumed in as many forms as possible to remain in constant boundless ecstasy.

Evidence of the use of bhang by spiritual mendicants in the 19th century can be seen from individual witness statements to the Hemp Commission. The widespread evidence of the use of bhang by the priestly class, which was completely different from the spiritual mendicant class, is also seen here. The priestly class was attached to various religious orders and places of worship. They were upper class and upper caste. The spiritual mendicant was not attached to any religious order, community or place of worship. He was the lowest class and lowest caste. It is seen that is many instances, witnesses confuse the spiritual mendicant with the priest, just as they are confused with beggars and tramps. Surgeon-Lieutenant-Colonel E. Bovill, Officiating Civil Surgeon of Patna and Superintendent, Lunatic Asylum, says, 'The quantity of bhang consumed is said to increase in the hot weather, and that of ganja to diminish. This is on account of the cooling properties of bhang as a drink...An infusion of bhang is hardly looked on as an intoxicant, and is often taken, especially in the hot weather, by religious mendicants and their pupils...' Babu Mahendra Chandra Mitra, Kayasth, Pleader, Honorary Magistrate, and Municipal Chairman, Naihati, 24-Parganas, says, 'By far the greater number of the drinkers of bhang consists of the Hindu sanyasis, who make it a point to drink it in pursuance of the dictates of a religious sentiment. It serves the purpose of casting away the sad thoughts of a sanyasi's life who, while he is conscious of his being a unit of the busy world around him, yet feels himself abandoned and neutral and an intruder in society according to the practical experience of life. The drink enables the sanyasi to pass the time in pleasant and pleasurable mood, and he who is sincerely a seeker of truth is enabled to fix his attention to religious contemplation unmoved from the object to which he had directed his thoughts...The mendicants excepted, all other classes use it in moderation.' Assistant Surgeon Hari Mohan Sen, Baidya, Chittagong, says, 'Siddhi is consumed by the well-to-do people to "cool the system when it is very hot," for certain excitement and as medicines when the bowels are out of order. Religious mendicants take it for the same purpose as that for which they consume ganja.'  Mr. K. C. Manavedan Raja, Collector, Anantapur, says, 'Fakirs, dasaries, lingayats, boyas, weavers, and marvadies are said to both eat and drink bhang, but it is drunk more often in assemblies of fakirs and by Rajputs.'  G. S. Khaperde, Brahmin, Pleader, Amraoli, says, 'Marwaris, some Upper India men, fakirs, udasis, and gosains drink bhang. They generally drink it in the evening outside the town in some garden or other place where water is fresh and abundant. They drink it after all the day's work is over... These are all generally good and law-abiding people. Some of them are respectable.'  Trimbak Rao Sathe, Extra Assistant Commissioner, and Diwan of the Sonepur State, 'In some religious institutions and social gatherings these drugs, ganja and bhang, are occasionally kept with the object of inducing people to attend them. And whoever attends such meetings is inclined to taste ganja or bhang by seeing others using the drug. In this part of the country I saw in several large villages religious places called "gudis" where occasionally in the year some Hindu mythological books, mostly "the Bhagwat," are read by priests and villagers who go there to hear them read in the evening. The priest is paid for his labour on the completion of the reading, which continues for several days, and the payment made by each person is generally in accordance with his regularity in attending the lectures. Those attending regularly pay larger sums than occasional visitors. So the promoters keep ganja, fire, etc., at the place to secure regular attendance of hearers. Such institutions initiate the habit of ganja smoking.' Mr. W. M. Smith, Retired Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Sonthal Parganas, says, 'The Deoghur priests are the principal consumers of bhang known to me.'  Mahamahopadhya Mahesha Chandra Nyayaratna, C. I. E., Brahmin, Principal, Government Sanskrit College, Calcutta, says, 'In Behar, the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, bhang is largely in use amongst members of the upper castes, Brahmans, Khatriyas and Vaishas; and amongst the priestly class, in particular in places of pilgrimage, such as Baidyanath, Gaya, Benares, Prayag, Mathura, Brindaban and Haridwar...There is a common saying Siddhi khele buddhi bare, ganja khele lakhi chare, which means "taking siddhi adds to the intellectual power, smoking ganja brings on poverty."' Assistant Surgeon Soorjee Narain Singh, Kayasth, Bankipur, says 'In Behar, the North-Western Provinces, the Punjab and Orissa bhang is a favourite drink of a certain class of Hindus, especially of the upper castes to whom spirituous liquor is prohibited. The Brijobasis of Mathura and the people of Rajputana are well-known bhang drinkers.' Pyari Sankar Dass Gupta, Baidya, Medical Practitioner, Secretary, Bogra Medical Society, Bogra, says, 'People who have not means to procure wine or ganja, or have some religious prejudices to the former, eat and drink bhang. Those who were formerly addicted to wine or ganja, but have left them owing to disease or poverty, use this. It is used in many villages, and among higher classes. Uriyas and up-country men use it more than the Bengalis...' Rai Tara Persad Mukerjee Bahadur, Brahman, Zamindar, Pleader, Saran Bar, Chairman of Municipal Board, Revelganj, and of Local Board, Chapra, President, Bench of Magistrates, Chapra and Revelganj, says, 'Bhang is used by some of the higher and also by the lower classes, and mostly by the Mathura Chowbay Brahmins.' Babu Raghunandan Prasad Sinha, Brahman, Zamindar, District Muzaffarpur, says, 'Nearly 85 per cent. of sadhus (ascetics) of all orders and places eat or drink bhang, and also 20 per cent. of the Hindu house-holders; but many of them do not do it continually and regulary, and specially not all the year round. Bhang drinking is specially done in hot season, and eating in rainy and winter seasons. The practice is universal and not confined to any locality. Sixty per cent. of the higher Hindu castes of the NorthWestern Provinces do drink or eat bhang, which is specially universal in its character in Muttra among Chaubays. Bhang eating is resorted to by comparatively few persons.' Babu Girjapat Sahai, Kayasth, Zamindar, Patnam says, 'Brahmins generally take bhang, which they say helps in their devotions.' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'Bhang is generally used by the classes to whom the use of spirituous liquors is prohibited on religious grounds, such as Brahmins, Kshetriyas, and other higher castes. Ninety per cent. of the pandas or spiritual guides attached to the temples of Baidyanath, Deogurh, and Gaya in Behar are as a class addicted to the use of bhang...the habitual excessive consumers of bhang are the pandas or spiritual guides attached to the temples at Baidyanath and Gaya and other similar temples...' Mr. A. G. M. Wodschow, Assistant Manager, Indigo and Zamindari, Dumur Factory, Purnea, says, '[bhang] by all castes, and mostly by the higher class all over the Purnea and Bhagalpur Districts...Bhang.— By the better class, mostly up-country men, Brahmins and Rajputs especially; they say it is a cooling drink.' Rev. Prem Chand, Missionary, B. M. S., Gaya, says, 'Almost all classes of Hindus take bhang. I do not think I shall be very wide of the mark when I say that 60 per cent. of the population of Behar uses it. The percentage would be somewhat higher in Baidyanath and Gaya.' Babu Purnendu Narayan Sinha, Kayasth, Pleader and Zamindar, Bankipur, District Patna, says, 'Vaishnava Hindus generally eat and drink bhang. The drug is particularly a favourite with the mahajan or trading class (consisting of Agarwalas, Banias, and Marwaris). It is also largely used by other classes of Vaishnava Hindus, though more in towns than in villages. The Vaishnava Sadhus, Nanaksahis, Udasis, and Sikhs also eat and drink bhang...Bhang is chiefly used by Vaishnava Hindus, whether ascetics or family men, also generally by the mahajan classes. It is liked by those classes, as they are strictly prohibited from touching wine, and as its intoxicating effects are mild and exhilarating.' Babu Mahendra Chandra Mitra, Kayasth, Pleader, Honorary Magistrate, and Municipal Chairman, Naihati, 24-Parganas, says, 'Bhang is used by sanyasis (ascetics), both eaten and drunk...By far the greater number of the drinkers of bhang consists of the Hindu sanyasis, who make it a point to drink it in pursuance of the dictates of a religious sentiment...The mendicants excepted, all other classes use it in moderation.' Babu Madhava Chandra Chatterjee, Brahmin, Pleader, District Court, Dinajpurun, says, 'Many respectable people drink bhang occasionally, and some respectable persons are even habitual drinkers of the drug. The worshipppers of Jagannath in Orissa and the Dobeys, Chowbeys, &c., of the North-Western Provinces who make tours in different parts of Bengal are, almost without exception, habitual drinkers of bhang...' Babu Jadunath Kanjilal, Brahmin, Pleader, Judge's Court, Hughli, says, 'Men who would not like to be known as ganjasmokers would ordinarily drink bhang.' Babu Beprodas Banerjee, Brahman, Pleader, Newspaper Editor, and Chairman, Baraset Municipality, says, 'Bhang is seldom eaten. Punjab people eat it when they cannot powder it. It is drunk in every part of India...In all temples dedicated to Siva bhang must be used in drinking and pouring on the head of the idol. The Maharaja of Benares gives bhang for use in the temple of Bisheshwar.' Babu Mohini Mohan Burdhan, Kayasth, District Government Pleader of Tippera, says, 'The use of bhang is not restricted to any particular section of the community, but the practice of taking it in the shape of confections or sweetmeats prepared with a little admixture of sugar, milk, and other edibles as well as in the form of liquid sherbets, obtains even among the higher orders of society...' Babu Jadubans Sshai, Pleader and Vice-Chairman, Arrah Municipality, says, 'Bhang is generally used in this country by all classes, to whom the use of spirituous liquors is prohibited by religion or family superstition and prejudice, such as Brahmins, Rajputs, and Bhunihars. Pandas of temples are habitual and excessive consumers of bhang. But its use is by no means restricted to any particular class, and Muhammadans, though not in the same proportion as Hindus, also use bhang, although strictly prohibited by their religion. More than a half of the adult male population in each locality use bhang.' Babu Kamala Kanta Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar and Pleader, President of the Chittagong Association, says, 'Orthodox Hindus drink bhang on the Dasami, Sripanchami and Sivaratri days. Hindustanis and Marwaries drink habitually...' District Board, Patna, says, 'Bhang is drunk by all classes of Hindus. It is a favourite drink with the Chowbeys, amongst Brahmins, Rajputs, Pavans, and Marwaris. ...The use of bhang is very great amongst these classes in cities and towns.' Jadu Ram Barooah, Assamese Kayasth, Local Board Member; Pensioned Overseer, Public Works Department, Dibrugarh, says, 'Among Assamese in religious days, especially by Brahmins, and few of all other classes...' Colonel M. M. Bowie, Commissioner, Nerbudda Division, says, 'Here bhang is chiefly drunk by the bunnia class and most of all by the Marwaris who take it during the hot weather as a cooling drink (thandai). In Sumbalpur the brahmins, I know, use it in the same way, and I believe its use is common among brahmins in other parts of the province also.' Mr. H. V. Drake-Brockman, Officiating  Commissioner of Excise, Central Provinces, says, 'The chief consumers of bhang are Marwaris, some of whom drink it daily. In the hot weather the well-to-do of all except the cultivating classes take it, because it is cooling and refreshing... The Marwaris are banias of the Oswal, Agarwal, Mahesri, and Jain sects...Bhang is a luxury for the well-to do, and very little used.' Trimbak Rao Sathe, Extra Assistant Commissioner, and Diwan of the Sonepur State, 'Among Brahmans and mahantis and such other higher classes, at the time of caste or religious festivals and feasts, bhang (kúsúmba) is prepared and given to the assembled guests before taking their food. It  is usual for the host to ask or even to press every guest, if he were very familar, to take it more and more, just as he does after-wards in the case of any delicious dish. Question 24 [oral evidence].—Most people of the higher classes in Sonepur take bhang, and most have at least tasted it.' Syed Mohamed Husain, Extra Assistant Commissioner; Diwan, Khairagarh State, says, 'Bhang is generally used by the middle classes such as the Brahmins, Chhattris, etc. The moderate use of bhang is not looked upon as a mean thing, and the Hindu religion does not forbid its use. In the hot weather people take it as a cooling drink. The upper classes use it more than any other preparation of hemp.'  Batuk Bharty, Superintendent of Kalahandi State, says, 'Bhang is not eaten in this State, but it is drunk. The Brahmins and other high castes drink it.' T. Goondiah, Tahsildar, Janjgir, Bilaspur District, says, 'Bhang is generally drunk by Marwari and Hindustani Brahmins in this country in summer season.' Vinayak Balkrishna Khare, Brahmin, Excise Daroga, Nagpur, says, 'The consumption of bhang is by no means restricted to the poor. On the other hand, it is drunk by Marwaris and banias on this side, and during the hot season by respectable high caste and educated Brahmins of the orthodox class who are restricted from taking liquors. Such a preparation is generally called " panga," meaning light drink. ... Moreover, some people are so fond among that Brahminical class that they take pride in preparing and consuming the strongest dose in other ways, namely, that the bhang patti is boiled in water in a copper pot and a couple of copper pice put into it while undergoing that process. It is then roasted in ghee and then powdered along with almond, aniseed, pepper, dry rose flowers, seed of cucumber, and all these mixed in water, or, to make it still stronger, to prepare it in milk which they call "dudhiya," and then to drink it. ..The learned Brahmins at Benares and Ujjain are noted for indulging in this drink, and through the instrumentality of the intoxication produced by it, they can repeat the Vedas without a mistake and without being fatigued...' Anandi Pershad, Excise Daroga, Hoshangabad, says, 'Persons of high caste very seldom smoke [ganja]...They use bhang to a very limited extent in large towns, such as Hoshangabad, Harda, Seoni and Sohagpur. They use it especially in the summer season. Mostly bhang is used by the Rajputana grocers, Brahmins, Marwaris, and the inhabitants of North-Western Provinces...' Doorga Das Sen, Baidya, Assistant Surgeon, Warora, says, 'Bhang is largely used chiefly by the upper classes of the Hindu people and generally they drink it in the hot weather, mixed with some massalas or with milk and sugar, with an impression that it has a cooling and refreshing effect on the body and the mind... As stated above, bhang is chiefly used by the upper classes of the Hindu labourers, viz., Brahmins, Kshatria, etc., etc.' Khushali Ram, Honorary Magistrate, Chhindwara, says, 'Members of all the lower castes smoke ganja and some of the higher castes, but among the latter is considered as a disgrace...The higher castes eat 'majum'  and 'talli hui' (as described above) and specially so at Holi time. Marwaris eat 'talli hui bhang.'' Pandit Narayan Rao Gobind, Brahmin, Zamindar, Hurda, says, 'The people who use ganja are not regarded with respectability, and therefore its use is generally made in secrecy... Generally the Brahmans residing in places of pilgrimage, viz., Benares, Ujjain, Mathra, Allahabad, Kanhpur, etc., and in Malwa and Bengal are addicted to use bhang. In the hot season the mahajans drink bhang and some people eat the drug as churan...' Chandi Pershad, Brahmin, Malguzar, and President, Municipal Committee, Chanda, says, 'The bhang of this district is eaten to some extent by Brahmins, Chattris, Marwaris, and Jats (from the North-Western Provinces). Low-caste people do not much use it.'  Rev. O. Lohr, Medical Missionary, Bisrampur, Raipur District, says, 'Bhang is, I believe, used by the up-country Brahmins and Banias chiefly as an aid to digestion; but only to a small extent.' Adhar Singh Gour, Kshattri, Barrister-at-law, Hoshangabad, says, 'Bhang is consumed generally by well-to-do people. Chaubes of Mathura and Marwaris seem to patronize it particularly. It is more largely consumed during the hot months, as it is believed to be cooling and digestive. Poor men and men of business do not, for one thing, patronize this bhang, as it requires quite one hour's time before it can be made; whereas ganja ball can be prepared for the chillum (pipe) in about one-fourth the time; indeed it can be made while the maker is attending to his usual work...' Mr.Tara Dass Banerji, President, District Council, Raipur, says, 'Bhang is drunk occasionally, i.e., during the hot weather moderately by more than 50 per cent. of the respectable classes of Marwaris, and during festive occasions by about 75 per cent. of them, of whom a good third take it in large quantities and get more or less drunk. The lower classes prefer smoking it, as thereby they avoid the elaborate and somewhat expensive items of spices, sugar, and milk. ... Almost every Marwari in Raipur and elsewhere drinks bhang in his " thandai " every evening during the hot weather. Habitual bangeris prefer to take it in pills which they sometimes dry up for use during travel or where they do not wish to take the trouble of preparing it every day. A good many people belonging to the other classes drink bhang during summer evenings " to cool themselves "----" thandai." Bhang is often used in the preparation of majum, a sort of sweetmeat, which is largely consumed during festive occasions like the Holi and Diwali, and which is sold all round the year in large towns, the principal consumers being prostitutes and their visitors. Bhang is also used by native physicians—baids—as a drug in the preparation of " modaks," emulsions for bowel and nervous debility...The very poor classes rarely have anything to do with bhang. If they get it, they would smoke it, or pound it up into a bolus. It would be a sort of makeshift for ganja.' Lala Nandkeshore, Agartcal, Merchant, Banker, Contractor, Malgoozar, Honorary Magistrate, Secretary, Municipal Committee, and Member, District Council, Saugor, says, 'Marwaris and Mathra Chaubes in general, and Pandits in particular, eat and drink bhang according to their convenience.' Lala Ramshahi and Lala Sitaram,  Abkari Contractors, Nagpur, say, 'Bhang is generally used in the whole of India, but it is used much in Marwar and Northern India. .All classes of people drink it, but Marwaris and Hindustani Brahmins use it much in drinking.' Hospital Assistant I. Parthasarathy Chetty, Penukonda, Anantapur District, says, 'Bhang, better known by the name of rama-rasam in the Telugu-speaking country, is used but rarely almost by every class of people, from the highest Brahman to the lowest Pariah. Muhammadans, especially fakirs, use this. Generally this preparation is made use of by people clustering themselves into pleasure parties, in which will be found also refined Hindus who loathe the name of intoxicating liquors. I came across such parties in Uriya country, Ganjam district. Rajputs and Mahrattas use the drug in this form very largely, and, it is said, specially during the Kama feast.' Sri Vasudeva Rajamani Rajah Deo, Kshatria, Zamindar of Mandasa, Ganjam District, says, 'In the Puri district half of the Brahmans, etc., drink bhang ; but I cannot say what portion of people in different castes eat or drink bhang.' Rev. W. V. Higgins, Missionary, Parlakimedi, Ganjam District, says, 'But bhang is expensive, and the former classes do not use it so much...The rich or well-to-do use the bhang for drinking purposes. The Uriya people, especially Brahmins, use the bhang...' Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, 'As for bhang: (1) amongst those whose habit of life is sedentary, and whose work requires long continued mental application, some are said to be addicted to the habit. (2) The pundits, who ape the fashions of Benares, the great religious centre of all India, are said to use it to a limited extent.' Mr. F. S. P. Lely, Collector of Surat, says, 'Bhang is chiefly drunk by goldsmiths (Sonis), Jains, Brahmins...Muhammadans and many castes of Hindus are led to ganja or bhang by having to abstain from alcohol from religious scruples.' Ganesh Krishna Garde, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Poona City, says, 'Here, as well as in Northern India, bhang drinking is not looked upon so disreputable as ganja or charas smoking and so it finds favour with higher classes.' Mr. Purbhuram Jeewanram, Nagar Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Bombay, says, 'Sadhus and men of the lower class and poor men use ganja...Brahmins, Ksbatryas and Vaishyas, both rich and poor, use bhang...Bhang is generally drunk ; but it is eaten when it is inconvenient to prepare the drink. In the hot weather in hot climates all classes drink bhang. Scholars and priests, who are not allowed to use liquor as a stimulant, freely drink bhang. Dealers in precious stones, pearls and jewels drink bhang, as they consider the drink helps them in their examination of these articles. In the Bombay presidency the jewellers and dealers in precious stones and pearls, who are mostly shrawak bauias, and originally from Surat, are habitual moderate consumers of bhang. Babus from Bengal and scholars and religious preachers, mostly high-caste Brahmins, are also habitual moderate consumers of bhang. Habitual excessive consumers of bhang will be found among the Brahmins, who perform religious rites in the temples and houses of the people. Occasional moderate bhang drinking is indulged in by men of all classes, high and low, rich and poor, without exception.' Desaibhai Kalidas, Brahmin (Khedaval), Government Pleader and Public Prosecutor, Kaira, says, 'The three higher classes, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, look down upon these practices [of ganja smoking]; and those who use ganja or charas are hated by the public...As there is no objection to the use of bhang, it is capable of being used, and is in fact used, by those that have a taste for it from all the four classes — Brahmins, Kshatryas, Vaishyas, and Sudras. Bhang is greatly used in drinking in Kashi (Benares), Kashmir, Nepal, Mathura, Ajodhya, Hardwar, and Prayag. In Gujarat, people in Surat, Broach, and Baroda, also use it for drinking in the summer season as a cooling beverage...The sadhus, etc., do not as a rule use bhang as they use ganja. A great portion of the sanyasis, those belonging to the fourth state intended for a Hindu householder, drink bhang. In Chandod and Karnali these live in great numbers...Bhang drinkers belong to all the classes, high and low, but the number is going down. Many addicted to it begin by using it as a cooling beverage in the hot season, and by constant use in company become victims of it. In feasts and friendly or marriage dinner parties, it is customary to prepare a mild bhang drink for amusement and for being able to do full justice to the dinner expected. Sanyasis use bhang both as a cooling drink and for the purpose of concentration in study and meditation. A great portion of Shastris (Pandits) also drink bhang as a help to the memory and concentration. The zaveris (goldsmiths, those who deal in gold, and jewels, and pearls, etc,) always take bhang in order to be able to accurately value their articles of trade.' Khan Bahadur Kadirdad Khan Gul Khan, C.I.E., Deputy Collector, Naushahro Sub-division, says, 'Charas and ganja are smoked by people of very low class and inferior habits, but bhang is taken by all classes, beginning with princes, nobles, merchants, spiritual leaders, ending with the poorest labourer and the beggar. The habit of using bhang is acquired by associating with bhang drinkers.' Mahomed Laik, Mukhtarkar of Hyderabad, says, 'Besides sanyasis, nangas, suthrias, kaheris and other fakirs smoke them, and they belong to low classes of people...But bhang is drunk by almost all classes of people, except Europeans, Parsis, and Boras..' G. V. Kot, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Amraoti, says, 'The smokers are generally of the lowest grades of society and the respectable who have been addicted to smoking are generally through contact or association with the low, or occasionally the habit has been induced to allay pain or infirmity. Bhang eating or drinking is more prevalent in the respectable than ganja smoking, and this custom has taken root on account of its connection with religious ideas.'

Alcohol

The spiritual mendicants did not take up the consumption of distilled alcohol introduced by the Europeans. For one thing it was expensive. Secondly, it was useless in terms of intoxication and providing the entheogenic effects that spiritual mendicants desired. Thirdly, the mendicants were probably well aware of the harms of alcohol, having seen its effect on the population. Babu Purnendu Narayan Sinha, Kayasth, Pleader and Zamindar, Bankipur, District Patna, says, 'Vaishnava Sadhus, Nanaksahi Sadhus, Udasi Sadhus—in fact, all classes of ascetics— who do not use alcohol, generally smoke ganja, excepting the follower of Guru Govind (the tenth Sikh Guru). The Sikhs as a class do not smoke. Vaishnava Grihasthas sometimes smoke ganja, but in a very small proportion, say 5 per cent., or even less...Ganja and charas.—The consumers are chiefly those classes of ascetics who are prohibited from drinking wine, and who are not prohibited, like the followers of Guru Govind, from smoking.'

Unlike the statements made by some witnesses that alcohol was forbidden by religion for a spiritual mendicant, the spiritual mendicant shunned it because it was harmful in nature. For the spiritual mendicant - god in human form - nothing is forbidden. It was only for those who belonged to the priestly class or caste of a religious order, whom these witnesses mistook for spiritual mendicants, having scarcely ever come across one, that things were permitted or forbidden. Mr. N. K. Bose, Officiating Magistrate and Collector of Noakhali, says, 'Among the Baishnabs, they say, the practice is sanctioned by their religion.'  Babu Roy Brahma Dutt, Kayasth, Excise Deputy Collector, Darbhanga, says, 'The first two because they require some sort of stimulant, but cannot drink spirit or tari which they consider from their religious notion as forbidden drinks. The third for the above reason as also because the drugs possess a peculiar kind of intoxication which helps in concentrating their mind to devotion.' N. Soondramiah, Brahmin, Deputy Tahsildar, Ootacamund, says, 'It is said that those who are not given up to alcoholic liquors use ganja.'  Mr. G. Cloney, Superintendent of Jail, Tanjore, says, 'It excites their appetite and removes the insufferable ennui of their existence. In this instance the aimless life may be said to beget the ganja habit...The price of the drug as compared with that of the cheapest of spirituous or fermented liquors is one of the chief reasons that leads those desirous of intoxication to resort to the practice.' Hospital Assistant Jagannath Pandit, Uriya, Russellkonda, Ganjam District, says, '...specially classes that are prohibited from drinking liquor...The primary object of smoking ganja is to concentrate the mind (on religious points)...' Rev. J. Desigachari, Missionary , Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Badvel, Cuddapah District, says, 'Those who cannot afford to spend money on liquors are compelled to go in for these. Smoking these drugs induces more intoxication than valuable liquors.' Mr. W. Almon, Assistant Collector, Abkari Department, Bombay, says, 'I would say (1) that the desire for an intoxicant of some kind, which is a pretty general feeling among all races ; (2) religious prohibition to the use of alcoholic drinks ; (3) association with hemp drug consumers ; (4) want of money to purchase liquors in the case of very poor people ; and (5) the use of a hemp drug as a medicinal agent, — are the chief circumstances which lead to the practice of consuming hemp drugs.' Dadhabhai Burjorjee Guzder, Parsi, District Abkari In spector, Ahmednagar, says, 'Fakki is used by mendicants and bairagis, etc., who cannot afford to spend money. These persons indulge in this, because they are prohibited from using alcohol on account of religious restrictions.'

Benefits of cannabis consumption for the spiritual mendicant class

As we see from the widespread evidence of witnesses across the length and breadth of the country, almost the entire class of spiritual mendicants were cannabis users. They mostly consumed cannabis smoked as ganja or charas, or drank it as bhang when they could. The spiritual mendicant classes are termed as habitual excessive users since they consumed large quantities of cannabis, as compared to the other classes, and did so on a daily basis if they could.

The reasons why spiritual mendicants consumed cannabis to large extents and frequently were many. Essentially cannabis was the fuel of the spiritual mendicant, enabling him or her to reach the highest levels of human evolution and remain there for long periods of time. They existed in a state of ecstasy, and they were the eternal spirit personified in human form. While their minds were concentrated on the highest levels of functioning, their bodies were subjected to the most arduous conditions constantly. One could not be attained without the other, as both the living like an animal and the existing in a mental state of constant ecstasy demanded each other. It was being at the peak of the two sides of consciousness - internal on the left side and external on the right - that Carl Jung spoke about using his schematic diagram of human consciousness during his lectures in Zurich in 1933-34, that appeared in the History of Modern Psychology, Vol. I. For the spiritual mendicant this consciousness extended till the extreme of each side, the external world and the internal world, achieving truth on the right and ecstasy on the left at its highest levels, and staying in that state for the longest time possible. This was when the concept of god became fully known both internally and externally, and the differences between human and god vanished. Nietzsche said, in the Will to Power, that 'Man is both beast and super-beast; the superior man is both subhuman and superhuman: these two things belong together. With man's every ascent into the heights of greatness, he also descends into the depths of cruelty, we should not desire the one without the other - or rather, the more thoroughly we desire the one, the more thoroughly we attain the other.' The development of superhuman states of the human mind also equally involved the development of superhuman states of the human body. Only when the body and mind are both raised to these highest levels will they be capable of housing the spiritual power in its purest form, and that too for long periods of time. An ordinary person with a weak body will suffer a physical breakdown if he pushes his mind to these highest levels of thinking without having the physical strength to hold the energy. Similarly, an ordinary person with a weak mind will suffer a mental short-circuit if he pushes his body to these highest levels of physical strength and endurance. It is only a very few, the rarest of the rare, that can take both to the highest levels, and remain there...in the zone...

As stated earlier, the spiritual mendicant was scantily clad, walked large distances, endured the most adverse cold, heat and rain, and went for many days without proper nutrition, keeping his mind in a constant state of ecstatic focus on the reality of nature and the eternal spirit. To do all this, he had to have cannabis, as this was the only thing available in nature that could enable him to do that without destroying his body or his mind. Opium was highly addictive and not endemic to India. Alcohol was both addictive and harmful. Datura destroyed the mind. It is not for nothing that ganja was the favorite herb of the greatest of all spiritual mendicants, Siva - the great god who walked the earth in human form, being called by different names in different places - Dionysus, Jehovah, Allah... 

Benefits of ganja and charas smoking for spiritual mendicants

Let us look at the evidence from witnesses made before the Hemp Commission as to the reasons why spiritual mendicants consumed ganja and occasionally to such a great extent. We see from the widespread evidence across the length and breadth of the country that this was not a local phenomenon, but an intrinsic attribute of all spiritual mendicants in India. From the extent of usage, we can also see that this was something that the spiritual mendicant had done for thousands of years, possibly from the time that Siva walked the earth.  

Though spiritual mendicants consumed cannabis in any form that they could get, it was primarily smoked as ganja, which was the cheapest and most efficient way to consume cannabis for this class, easily the poorest in India, by choice, however, rather than by circumstance. Charas was a luxury that was mostly accessible only in the northern parts of the country. In response to questions 10, 17, 20, 24, 27 posed by the Hemp Commission regarding the classes that consumed cannabis, and the reasons for it, we see the following statements made by individual witnesses. Mr. L. Hare, Magistrate and Collector of Muzaffarpur, says, 'Fakirs use them to help them in meditation and to preserve their health against the evil effects of damp, open-air living, and exposure.' Mr. G. E. Manisty, Magistrate and Collector of Saran, says, '..the mendicants to concentrate their thoughts.' Mr. A. E. Harward, Offg. Magistrate and Collector, says, 'The habitual consumption of ganja by religious mendicants is to be accounted for partly by custom and partly by the life of constant exposure which many of them lead.' Colonel C. H. Garbett, Deputy Commissioner of Hazaribagh, says, 'Exposure in the rainy months to the inclemencies of the weather is generally the cause which make them resort to the practice.' Rai Nandakisore Das, Bahadur, District Officer of Angul, Cuttack, says, 'They use it after exposure...' Mr. W. Maxwell, Sub-Divisional Officer, Jhenidah, District Jessore, says, 'It is supposed to protect from exposure.'  Babu Pran Kumar Das, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector and Personal Assistant to the Commissioner of Burdwan, says, 'Generally speaking, those whose pursuits cause much physical strain on them take ganja.' Babu Ganganath Roy, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Chittagong, says, 'Religious mendicants, i.e., fakirs, sanyasis, etc., smoke ganja partly to be able to bear up the fatigue and exposure to weather, and partly to concentrate their minds on the contemplation of the subject of their devotion when they address themselves to it.' Babu Jaga Mohan Bhattacharjya, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector and Personal Assistant to Commissioner, Chittagong, says, 'It is said to protect them from the effects of exposure. (It is taken as a prophylactic to fever by people who have to work in the wet.—W. O.)' Babu A. K. Ray, Sub-Divisional Magistrate, Bangaon, Jessore District, says, 'Sanyasis and bairagies take it to prevent catching cold from exposure, and also to secure greater power of endurance.' Babu Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, on deputation as 2nd Inspector of Excise,, says, 'These people give up worldly pleasures and enjoyments and temporal concerns. For concentration of thought and for forgetting all worldly cares and anxieties, for control over the passions and as a preventive against diseases consequent on exposure, climatic influence, on account of religious prejudice against country spirit, on account of its cheap price, and on account of the holy sentiment attached to the smoking of the drug (a favourite intoxicant of the god of gods — Siva) ganja is used. ..Occasional excessive.—. People suffering from colic, asthma, and other painful diseases, venereal diseases, etc. Habits, etc.—For intoxicating purpose. In honour of god Siva for religious purposes.' Babu Rajani Prasad Neogy, Excise Deputy Collector, Mymensingh, says, 'The classes enumerated under this head are always exposed to the heat of the sun and the other inclemencies of the weather. An excessive consumption of the drug hardens them against these exposures. The religious devotees also use the drug for helping them in concentrating their minds.' Babu Wooma Charan Bose, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector; Manager, Raj Banaili, District Bhagalpur, says, 'It also enables them to devote much of their time in undisturbed contemplation of their gods.' Babu Kali Das Mukerji, Sub-Deputy Collector and Superintendent of Distillery, Serampore, Hughli, says, 'Ganja is used...by the fakirs and friars, as a safeguard against disease in malarious tracts. Charas closely follows ganja in this respect...The Hindu friars and jogis are said to use it to help them in their religious contemplation by increasing the powers of concentration. Specially from this point of view siddhi is preferable to liquor.' Babu Jogendra Nath Mozumdar, Brahmin, Deputy Inspector of Excise, Darjeeling, says, 'It is said that the smoking of ganja produces a state of mind, when persons, who have by steady effort tried to do so, are enabled to concentrate their minds in divine contemplation. Hence Hindu ascetics are hard ganja smokers, but I think most of them fail to turn its use to that purpose.' Babu Digendra Nath Pal, Kayasth, Deputy Inspector of Excise, 24-Parganas, says, 'Hardship and a life of asceticism are the principal causes which lead to practice.' Mr. R. L. Ward, District Superintendent of Police, Rajshahi, says, 'Ganja is generally smoked by the lower classes of people of Eastern Bengal—that is, that part of Bengal which is for the greater part of the year under water and damp...for preventing rheumatism from cold and damp.' Mr. W. R. Ricketts, Manager, Nilgiri State, Tributary Mahals, Orissa, says, 'From the nature of their lives they generally take it to excess.' Mahamahopadhya Mahesha Chandra Nyayaratna, C. I. E., Brahmin, Principal, Government Sanskrit College, Calcutta, says, 'Their effect in producing intoxication being almost instantaneous, may be another reason for their use. The sanyasis regard the use of ganja as essential to preserve health. It may be that it temporarily wards off the effects of exposure to wind, rain and sun.' Rai Bahadur Kanny Loll Dey, C.I.E., late Chemical Examiner to the Government of Bengal, Calcutta, says, 'because it enables its votaries to undergo exposure or great manual labour at a minimum cost of tissue.' Assistant Surgeon Chooney Lall Dass, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence and Therapeutics, Medical School, Dacca, says '...whose occupations necessitate them to exposure to the influences of the weather...are more addicted to the habit of ganja-smoking than people in other occupations of life...' Assistant Surgeon Soorjee Narain Singh, Kayasth, Bankipur, says 'Sanyasis and fakirs use it to allay thirst and hunger, endure privations, and fix the attention.' Assistant Surgeon Hari Mohan Sen, Baidya, Chittagong, says, 'Religious mendicants take it for helping mental abstraction and deadening carnal sensibilities, as hunger, thirst, etc.' Maharaja Girijanath Roy Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'Ganja is generally used by...the jogis and religious mendicants for concentration of mind...' Rai Radha Govinda Rai, Sahib Bahadur, Kayasth, Zamindar, Dinajpur, says, 'The mendicants travel from place to place, and the reason of their using ganja is that they can endure different climates.' Babu Surendra Nath Pal Chowdhury, Zamindar, Ranaghat, District Nadia, says, 'Certain religious sects, such as jogis, sanyasis and fakirs (both Hindus and Muhammadans) use these drugs (ganja and bhang) in excessive quantities to enable them to endure hardships, to deaden their passions, etc.; and their number is not small.' Babu Radhika Churn Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar, Berhampur, says, 'To guard against the influence of climate as well as to enable them to concentrate their thoughts in the contemplation of the divinity, which is a condition dependent upon the suspension of mental activities, they take to ganja smoking.' Babu Jogendra Kishore Rai Chaudhuri, Zamindar, Ramgopalpur, District Mymensingh, says, 'Sadhus and sanyasis, i.e., religious mendicants of the lower order, are often seen to smoke ganja with the object of effective meditation and concentration of the mind...' Mr. L. H. Mylne, Zamindar and Indigo-planter, Justice of the Peace, President of Independent Bench of Honorary Magistrates, Chairman of Jugdispur Municipality, District Shahabad, says, 'It is said these use it chiefly to deaden sexual appetite...' Mr. A. G. M. Wodschow, Assistant Manager, Indigo and Zamindari, Dumur Factory, Purnea, says, 'Ganja.—By hermits, travellers, and the poorer class of workmen, who say it is a relief after work and keeps hunger away.' Babu Sasi Bhusan Roy, Manager, Dubalhati Raj Estate, Rajshahi District, says, 'The sanyasis...with a view to concentrate their thoughts to one particular thing, get themselves addicted to this habit.' Mr. H. M. Weatherall, Manager, Nawab's Estate, Tippera, says, 'Siva himself was a liberal patron of hemp drugs in all its varieties, and his followers keep up the dignity of their great master by calling it "Siva prasad."' Babu Aghore Nath Banerji, Vice-Chairman, Serampore Municipality, District Hughli, says, 'Sanyasis become habitual excessive smokers of ganja in order to concentrate their mind and fix their attention to devotional purposes, and drive away all cares and anxieties and to abstain from passions and appetities; and to guard against the inclemencies of the weather, as they are in the habit of living in exposed places. Few other people than the sanyasis become habitual excessive smokers merely for enjoyment's sake to drive away all worldly anxieties.' Babu Purnendu Narayan Sinha, Kayasth, Pleader and Zamindar, Bankipur, District Patna, says, 'As these people have to move about, and as they are exposed to the inclements of weather, they smoke ganja and charas as a preventive of diseases. Some of them are also of opinion that concentration of mind, which is necessary for meditation, is helped by smoking these drugs.' Babu Beprodas Banerjee, Brahman, Pleader, Newspaper Editor, and Chairman, Baraset Municipality, says, 'Religious mendicants, who have often to live under trees, in jungles, on mountains, etc., exposed to all weathers, are of necessity ganja smokers. They say that a man can better contemplate God after a hearty smoke of ganja.' Babu Kailas Chandra Dutta, Baidya, Vakil, Judge's Court, Comilla, Tippera District, says, 'Sanyasis take for religious purposes. People frequenting a religious gathering called Trinath mela smoke ganja as a sort of pleasure under sanction of religion.' Babu Kamala Kanta Sen, Kayasth, Zamindar and Pleader, President of the Chittagong Association, says, 'ascetics to concentrate their attention to devotion, etc.' District Board, Patna, says, 'Sanyasis who lead an itinerant life and subject themselves to different climates and exposure, find it a very pleasant drug to alleviate the effects of such a nomadic life.' Bishun Chandra Chattopadhay, Pleader, Dhubri, says, 'Then there is another class of excessive ganja-smokers. These are religious mendicants and ascetics, who expose themselves most.' Jadu Ram Barooah, Assamese Kayasth, Local Board Member; Pensioned Overseer, Public Works Department, Dibrugarh, says, 'all fakirs and monks consume it considerably as one of the necessaries to stick to their holy devotions, more especially as because god Siva was using it...to stick their minds to devotions.' Mr. H. V. Drake-Brockman, Officiating  Commissioner of Excise, Central Provinces, says, 'those who have adopted a wandering or isolated mode of life on religious or semireligious grounds.' Ram Krishna Rao, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Bhandara, says, 'They consider ganja the gift of Mahadeo. It is supposed to concentrate the mind of the worshipper.' Vinayak Balkrishna Khare, Brahmin, Excise Daroga, Nagpur, says, 'indifference to the worldly affairs and conduct of life, without caring for the morrow.' Mir Zamin Ali, Pensioned Hospital Assistant, Jabalpur, says, 'The sadhus and fakirs use ganja, because, firstly, influenced by its intoxication they are better able to meditate deeply on their deity, and, secondly, by the use of ganja they can destroy their appetites for sexual indulgence, which is the great control required in a sadhu.' Gangadharroa Madho Chitnavis, Honorary Magistrate, Nagpur, says, 'Travellers and pilgrims who walk on foot or who alway expose themselves are addicted to it. The mendicants also smoke this drug. The localities where it is generally used are sarais or inns, and places where the pilgrims, fakirs or gosains, generally stop...' Seth Bachraj, Honorary Magistrate, Wardha, says, 'Gosains, sadhus and fakirs chiefly use to suppress all sensual passions.' Hari Har Singh, Zamindar and Honorary Magistrate, Sambalpur District, says, 'Some say that the intoxication from ganja has the effect of concentrating the mind, i.e., the mind takes the same direction as the persons using it wishes. I therefore think that, as the jogis and Vaishnavas always wish to devote themselves towards God, with a fixed mind, they use it with that object:' Diwan Prem Singh, Zamindar, Bilaspur District, says, 'Sadhus, for purposes of devotion'. Lall Umed Singh, Zamindar, Bilaspur District, says, 'It is supposed to conduce to religious abstraction...' Rao Venjat Rao, Brahmin, Malguzar, and Political Pensioner, Saugor, says, 'Bairagis take ganja to prevent evil effects of drinking water of different places.' Rao Sahib Balwantrao Govindrao Bhuskute, Brahmin, Jagirdar of Timborni, Barhanpar, Nimar District, says, 'persons whose duties subject them to the inclemencies of weather and require them to move about in bad and unhealthy places.' Rev. I. Jacob, Church of England Missionary, Chairman, District Council, etc., Chanda, says, 'The habits of life and circumstances which lead to the practice of ganja in its various forms are...devotion and forgetfulness of pains endured and austerities practised by them.' Adhar Singh Gour, Kshattri, Barrister-at-law, Hoshangabad, says, 'These classes of people are as a rule ill clad. They think that the use of the drug fortifies them against the extremes of weather. Bairagis and sanyasis use it because it enables them to meditate properly.' Babu Kalidas Chowdhry, Brahmin, Pleader, Hoshangabad, says, 'are said to be able to perform their devotions with greater concentration of mind.' Rao Sahib Rangrao Harry Khisty, Pleader, Bhandara, says, 'Gossains, Bairagis use this as it is considered the gift of Mahadeo, and it is supposed to be enjoined by him for concentrating the mind of his worshippers.' Lala Ramshahi and Lala Sitaram,  Abkari Contractors, Nagpur, say, 'Sages use it under the impression that their mind is directed steadily for a long time towards God.' Babu Muna Lall, Ex-Contractor of Ganja, Jabalpur, says, 'fakirs use it extensively because they can stave off hunger by its use.' Mr. C. B. Macleane, Collector of Nellore, says, 'Ganja smoked by the lower orders, Hindus, and Muhammadans, and by ascetics, bairagis and fakirs, under the impression that it prolongs life. Bairagis and fakirs hold that it affords them religious visions.' Mr. W. A. Willock, Collector, Vizagapatam, says, 'They find that it increases their power of becoming absorbed in their devotions, and that it in time destroys their sexual instincts.' Mr. J. Thomson, Collector of Chingleput, says, 'The religious fanatics, such as bairagis, sanyasis, etc., resort to the drug (1) for the concentration of their thoughts necessary in the practice of yoga effected by stupefying the senses, (2) as a means of rendering their constitutions proof against diseases.' Mr. C. H. Mounsey, Acting Collector of Cuddapah, says, 'They say they do so because their ancestors did so. Because it is good for digestion. These men live by begging.' Mr. H. Campbell, Acting Sub-Collector, Guntoor, says, 'The consumers are not dangerous to society. The wandering fakirs and bairagis are said to smoke ganja to secure concentration of mind in their devotional practices, and to serve as a temporary antidote against hunger.' P. Pundarikakshudu, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Venukunda, Kistna District, says, 'Ganja is used as medicine for belly-ache, cough, and such like diseases. Wandering people take to it...Bairagis take to it for purposes of devotion.' M. R. R. Dewan Bahadur S. Venkata Ramadas Naidu, Deputy Collector, Godavari, says, 'Bairagis contribute most to class (b) [ocassional excessive consumers] under ganja. They believe that its use makes them wise by extinguishing in them all passion for sexual pleasures.' M. Azizuddeen, Sahib Bahadur, Deputy Collector, North Arcot, says, 'smoke ganja and drink bhang and eat other preparations made from the hemp plant to keep themselves in a state of intoxication, to prevent the evil effects of water, to keep the body warm, and to endure hunger. They say by smoking ganja they don't feel the effects of appetite, and that it increases manhood.' K. Narayana Iyer, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Gooty, says, 'Wandering fakirs...take it to alleviate the fatigue they feel. Idleness also begets the practice.' M. R. Ry. P. Veeraswami Naidu, Deputy Collector, Masulipatam, says, 'Fakirs, monks and ascetics consume it in order that their minds may be concentrated with more or less forgetfulness of worldly cares in offering their prayers to the Almighty.' A. Krishnamacharulu, Tahsildar, Bapatla, Kistna District, says, 'Bairagis use this as incentive for their devotional habits, and they seem to be very earnest in their Bhagana and. other services, after they partake of this in company.' P. S. Singaravelu Pillai, Tahsildar of Erode, says, 'These have to bear fatigue and go without food for a day or two at times.' M. Bimachari, Tahsildar, Rayadrug, says, 'persons who are supposed to have renounced worldly cares and desires...' M. Seshachala Naidu, Baliya, Pensioned Tahsildar, Vellore, says, 'A wandering life appears to have led to the use of bhang. The impression is, the use of bhang neutralizes the bad effects of water of different places visited by the wandering.' R. C. Rama Iyengor, Brahmin, Village Magistrate, Berangy, Mudanapulee Taluk, Cuddapah District, says, 'In places where there is much cold.' K. Narainaswamy Naidu, Velama, Huzoor Sheristadar, Masulipatam, says, 'Wandering tribes take it with the hope that it checks malarious poison. Others, viz, mendicants, etc., practise it with the expectation that it concentrates the mind.' Mr. C. E. Hardie, District Forest Officer, Manantoddy, North Malabar, says, 'It is chiefly smoked, being less expensive and easily prepared for the purpose...' Subadar Major Mahammad Murtuza, 1st Madras Pioneers, Trichinopoly, says, 'Muhammadan fakirs and Hindu jogies take it for the purpose of forgetting worldly matters.' Apothecary G. A. W. Vellones, Chetambaram, South Arcot, says, 'Pandarams, bairagis, etc., for the most part use ganja freely, as bhang is costly...' Apothecary Muhammad Asadulla, Ellore, Godavary District, says, 'bairagis or hermits,...for keeping off malaria...This habit is met with equally among vegeterians and flesh-eaters, and among people of itinerant habits such as hermits...who undergo hardships incidental to frequent changes of climate of the worst type possible.' Hospital Assistant M. Iyaswamy Pillay, Saint Thomas' Mount, Madras, says, 'and as regards the lower classes who cannot afford to purchase intoxicating drugs at a cheaper rate, it becomes a practice to them to smoke ganja.' Hospital Assistant M . V. Ramanugulu Naidu, Peddapur, Godavari District, says, 'specially by those who profess to practise Yogam.' Hospital Assistant I. Parthasarathy Chetty, Penukonda, Anantapur District, says, 'The class of people that smoke ganja, of Hindus, forms mostly those that abandon the cares of the world in favour of philosophical discussions of divine existence; the same case is with many of the Muhammadans. Ganja is generally smoked in muttams, makkams, and also in houses...' Aziz-ud-din Ali Khan, Sahib Bahadur, Jagirdar, Cherlopalle, Gurramkanda, District Cuddapah, says, 'This practice is got into for putting down anger and suppressing manly power.' E. Subramana Iyer, Brahmin, Chairman, Municipal Council, Conjevaram, Chingleput District, says, 'People make use of it more on account of its deadening effects on bodily ailments. It deprives them of the feelings of pain, keeps their spirits up while they are in a languid state.' Rev. S. J. Long, Missionary, Coimbatore, says, 'Ganja smokers appear to be mainly fakirs and sanyasis and to have derived the habit of smoking from their fathers.' Rev. John S. Chandler, Missionary Madura, says, 'The ascetics take it to sustain them in long journeys without food.' Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, 'The religious ascetics use it (ganja), because they are enabled by it to overcome desire and thus attain that holy state in which the soul is filled with all reverence to the Deity. Shrewd observers say that they certainly lose all desire, for many of them smoke to the sacrifice of food, sense, reverence, health, strength, and everything that goes to make up manhood...The disciples of these men smoke because their masters smoke, drawn to it by the seductiveness of the drug, in some cases to drown care...That the water of strange wells conduces to fever and sickness in the user is a widespread belief amongst the people. To counteract the supposed ill effects of this water, travellers or newly arrived residents in a place who may suffer from ill health resort to all sorts of reputed cures...and men whose habits are more or less nomadic use ganja to a more marked extent than other classes of the people, and for the reason stated above...Then ganja has a reputation amongst its devotees of curing coughs, asthma, etc. A few are induced to adopt the habit by this consideration.' N. Kothundaramayya, Brahmin, Editor of "Suneeti" Rajahmundry, Godavari District, says, 'Indolence, or devotion to God, or resignation of worldly pleasure leads to such practice.' Ganjam Vencataratnam, Brahmin, 1st Grade Pleader, Coconada, Godavery District, says, 'they believe in its efficacy to lessen sexual desire.' P. C. Anunthacharlu, Brahmin, Chairman, Municipal Council, and Government Pleader, Bellary, says, 'It is sometimes used in the beginning as medicine to facilitate digestion, to check diarrhœa, dysentery, etc.' Hon'ble A. Sabapathy Moodelliar, Rai Bahadur, Merchant, Bellary, says, 'of the excessive consumers, the fakirs, etc., use ganja to enable them to concentrate steadily their mind on God and to secure onepointedness of the mind.' Chodisetty Venkataratnum, Merchant, Coconada, Godavari District, says, 'Hindu ascetics generally use it because it keeps the mind of a man steady. Furthermore, they use it with the object of keeping good health, as they lead a wandering life. The main object of these Hindu ascetics in smoking ganja or in drinking bhang excessively is to subside their passions.' Mirza Mehdy Ispahani, Merchant, Madras, says, 'It is a custom in all important Hindu temples to allow a certain quantity of ganja and tobacco to travellers, mendicants, and gosains. The Hindus of Gujarat give it as charity, as the ganja plant is sacred amongst them...It is mostly used by...fakirs to relieve them from the fatigue.' T. Ratnasami Nadar, Arrack Supply Contractor, Malabar, says, 'This practice seems to be chiefly addicted to wandering mendicants owing to the fatigue and other hardships to which their wandering life exposes them. The practice seems to be more common in these parts among the Muhammadans than among Tamilians.' Baldevdas, Brahmin, Priest of Hanuman Math, Rajahmundry, says, 'People of colder climes use it more freely and to a greater extent.' Mr. E. J. Ebden, Collector, Ahmednagar, says, 'Some, the  most habitual user, said they sought intoxication ; others wanted it for the relief of pain in joint, stomach, head, etc.;' Mr. F. L. Charles, Collector, Belgaum, says, 'The reason for this is the life of hard privation and exposure they lead in their wanderings.' Mr. F. S. P. Lely, Collector of Surat, says, 'They take it because it enables them to bear abstinence from food and water and even clothes in the coldest weather. It is said to enable them to resist the most malarious climate and the worst water.' Mr. H. Woodward, Collector, Kaira, Gujarat, says, 'The people of a country like India must have stimulants. The form of the stimulant chosen will depend on a variety of circumstances, not the least important being the means of the consumer. Physical aches and pains, mental depression, general joylessness of life among the more indigent classes, the force of bad example, are all incentives to get temporary rest and oblivion.' Mr. C. G. Dodgson, Assistant Magistrate and Collector, Khandesh, says, 'Want of regular employment, want of settled homes, want of regular food are the principal causes which lead to the use of the drugs.' Mr. A. H. Plunkett, City Magistrate, Poona, says, 'Their habits of life and their pilgrimages lead to the habitual use of the drugs, especially that of ganja smoking and gota-drinking, in order to enable them to bear climatic changes and to endure fatigue.' Rao Bahadur Vyankatesh Bapuji Wadekar, Deputy Collector, Ahmednagar, says, 'Beggars, fakirs and sadhus (ascetics) use it to allay hunger.' Rao Bahadur Sitaram Damodar, Huzur Deputy Collector, Khandesh, says, '...the men who have resigned all worldly care and are scantily clad and fed and sheltered have, in order to forget their sufferings, contracted the practice.' Khan Bahadur Ratanji Erdalji Kanga, Parsi, Deputy Collector and Magistrate, Dharwar, says, 'Bairagis and gosains consume the drug for concentrating their attention on a single object.' Rao Sahib Krishnaji Ballal Deval, Chitpavan, Brahmin, Mamlatdar and Magistrate, 1st Class, Chiplon, says, 'Bairagis, fakirs, and other travelling mendicants have no established houses. They travel from village to village, and district to district, with their families and children. The elders consume these stuffs, and the youngers follow their example. When the elders die, the youngers become elders, and their sons in their turn follow their example, and so on.' Balkrishna Narayan Vaidya, Parbhu, State Karbhari of Sangli, says, 'serves them as a stimulant...Men of small means, who have to work hard for their maintenance, generally take to the habit of ganja smoking.' Mr. T. G. Foard, Superintendent of Police, Cambay, says, 'Smoking the drug appears to be a great solace to them in their solitary moments.' Ganesh Krishna Garde, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Poona City, says, 'The habits of life or circumstances which mainly lead to the practice may be summed up in the following few words:— love of intoxication,...want of food and clothing and a desire for austerities among the nomadic bairagis, gosavis and fakirs, the enervating and depressing effect of the parching sun in Northern India,...: all these, either separately or combined, lead people to resort to these narcotics.' Bhalchandra Krishna Bhatavadekar, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Bombay, says, 'Freedom from anxiety and domestic care, as well as company of gangs of these people.' Keshowram Haridat, Chcepooria, Audesh Brahmin, Native Doctor (Vaidya), Render, Surat and Bombay, says, 'Charas is used by sadhus and fakirs, who as a necessity require some strong narcotic.' Rao Bahadur Vishwanath Keshawa Joglekar, Brahmin, Sowkar, Karajgi in Dharwar District, says, 'Time habits of life or circumstances which mainly generate this vice, are a life of disappointment and dejection, a life of asceticism,...' Rao Bahadur Venkat Rango Katti, Pensioner, Dharwar, says, 'Bairagis and fakirs smoke ganja or drink bhang to make attention steady and to wipe off fatigue.' Laldas Laxmonji, Kshatriya, Solicitor's Clerk, Bombay, says, 'Sadhus smoke ganja chiefly with the object of producing concentration of mind in their devotions.' Pribhdas Shewakram Advani, Secretary, Band of Hope, Hyderabad, Sind, says, 'Charas and ganja are smoked by fakirs and wandering tribes who live by begging.' Pesumal Nerumal, Farmer and Merchant, Hyderabad, says, 'Hindu and Mussalman fakirs use them themselves, and have inherited the habit from their elders and transmit it to their chelas (disciples).' Dayaram Kishunchand, Bhang, Charas and Ganja, and Opium Farmer, Hyderabad, says, 'The company of the smokers of these drugs often leads to these habits, and sometimes they are taken as an antidote against diseases.' C. Sham Rao, Attachè to the Resident at Hyderabad, now at Pusad, Basim District, says, 'Rich classes and Kayaths in Hindustan greatly make use of charas. It is a costly thing. As ganja could be procured cheaply, so mendicants, such as fakirs, gosains, largely make use of it...Gosains, fakirs, and ascetics smoke ganja to make themselves impotent, and to forget other worldly pleasures by being partially or wholly stupefied by the influence of these drugs.' Krishnarao Hari, Officiating Extra Assistant Commissioner, Buldana, says, 'Bairagis and gosavis, who as such are said to renounce all the worldly cares, often addict themelves to the use of smoking ganja that they may not feel the absence of worldy blessings which they are, by their profession, compelled to renounce. This they can effect by being always under the influence of narcotic hemp drug.' Abarao Jauroo, Maratha, Karbhari Patel and Special Magistrate, Khamgaon, Akola District, says, 'Ganja is mostly smoked by sadhus and others who have to travel much. Also those who can't afford to drink or take opium, smoke ganja.' Mr. J. C. Watcha, Excise Inspector, Ellichpur, says, 'The habits are acquired by association.' Waman Ganesh, Tahsildar, Wun, says, 'It is a general opinion of the public that exertions of severe nature can be alleviated by ganja smoking.' G. S. Khaperde, Brahmin, Pleader, Amraoli, says, 'Working in damp, exposure, forced abstinence, lead to the use of the drug.' Mahamahopadhya Mahesha Chandra Nyayaratna, C. I. E., Brahmin, Principal, Government Sanskrit College, Calcutta, says, 'It is company and association that lead to the practice of taking ganja and charas. Another cause of these two drugs being in use among the poorer classes and amongst ascetics (sanyasis) is the cheapness of the drugs.'

We see similar responses to question 32 on the religious use of cannabis in India, and question 40 and 41 regarding the medical uses of cannabis in India, that the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission put before witnesses in 1894-95. 

On the religious uses, in response to question 32, we find the following summary by the Commission, and individual evidence statements from the witnesses. The Commission states, in its summary that  '431. In the instructions issued to the Commission by the Government of India, reference is made to the use of hemp drugs among fakirs and ascetics who are held in veneration by large classes of the people, and to the custom, which is believed to obtain to a large extent in Bengal, of offering an infusion of bhang to every guest and member of the family on the last day of the Durga Puja. The Commission were instructed to ascertain to what extent these and similar customs prevail in Bengal and other parts of India, and how far the use of hemp drugs forms a part of social, or possibly religious, ceremonial or observance. Questions 32 and 33 of the Commission's questions were intended to elicit information on these points.' Here are some responses to question 32. Mr. J. H. Gwynne, Deputy Collector, Wynaad, Malabar District, says, 'Ascetics use it on the plea that it helps to concentrate the mind, and thus enables them to fix their thoughts wholly upon God.' A. Krishnamacharulu, Tahsildar, Bapatla, Kistna District, says, 'No social or religious customs connected with the use of ganja or bhang are known to exist. It is used by the bairagis and others who want to give up society and lead the life of ascetics as a thing that induces concentration of mind necessary for meditation and devotion, and also as one that makes a man indifferent to thirst and appetite.' P. Ram Rao, Tahsildar of Hadgalli, says, 'Some of the mendicants, under the impression if they take any of these preparations their minds will be devoted towards God.' Hospital Assistant T. Ranganaya Kulu Naidoo, Rajahmundry, Godavari District, says, 'Religious — ascetics and fakirs of wandering habits. It is regarded as essential with the ascetics for the concentration of thought and of the enduring habit. It is generally excessive, and it is injurious to health by affecting the lungs and general waste of muscles.' Hospital Assistant M. Iyaswamy Pillay, Saint Thomas' Mount, Madras, says, 'There is no custom, either social or religious, in regard to the consumption of these drug; but the sanyasis and bairagis practise very much, simply because to keep their minds in steadiness for their meditations and devotions. Such custom, however, is not considered essential to them. These persons often indulge in excess, thereby acquiring a habit, without considering, however, whether it is injurious or otherwise.' K. Subbarayadu Puntalu, Brahmin, Chairman of the Adoni Municipal Council, Bellary District, says, 'By bairagis, sanyasis and fakirs, ganja is smoked generally with a view to facilitate concentration of mind for divine contemplation. Labouring classes use it to find relief and kill fatigue. Beyond these there are no more customs here.' Rev. H. J. Goffin, Missionary, Kadiri, Cuddapah District, says, 'The religious mendicants, who use it largely, do so probably (1) because they are a lazy, bad class of men ; (2) because it helps them to bear the hard-hips of their peculiar kind of life; and (3) because the half-crazy, imbecile demeanour it produces is not unfavourably regarded by the people.' Rev. H. F. LaFlamme, Canadian Baptist Mission, Yellamanchili, Vizagapatam, says, '(a) The ganjai habit is called "the leaf of wisdom" amongst the sanyasis or religious ascetics, because the use of it produces a mental state conducive to a knowledge of the Deity. (b) The use of it by them, though all but universal, is not considered essential. (c) It is generally excessive. (d) And injurious.' P. Kesava Pillai, Karnam, Pleater, and Honorary Secretary of the Gooty People's Association, says, 'It is not associated with any social or religious custom. Almost all the bairagis use it, and passionately like it for the reason that it is an effective preventive against fevers as well as the effects of cold and of drinking all sorts of water in their wanderings.' Baldevdas, Brahmin, Priest of Hanuman Math, Rajahmundry, says, 'To keep their minds steady in philosophical devotion and penitential purposes, men use it. Some think it necessary for religious thoughts. Those who consume it for religious purpose use it moderately. But the rest become intemperate and use it excessively. It becomes a habit, and, taken to excess, it is injurious to health. It is generally in disrepute, though not so with bairagis and fakirs.' Rao Sahed Shesho Krisna Mudkavi, Mamlatdar of Taluka Bijapur, Bijapur, says, 'There is no custom at all, social or religious, in regard to the consumption of any intoxicating drugs, like bhang, ganja, etc. On the contrary, their use is forbidden by religion. A consumer of such drugs is hated by respectable men, and so there is no religious or social binding to use the drug. In the case, however, of ascetics and bairagis it is regarded as a necessity for concentration of mind in contemplation or devotion; but there is no authority of the shastra for such sentiment.' Dadabhai Burjorjee Guzder, Parsi, District Abkari Inspector, Ahmednagar, says, 'The consumption of any of these drugs is regarded as religious by ascetics and bairagis, who say that by the use of any of these drugs their sole attention is devoted to the Almighty. Some of the worshippers of the god Shiva regard the use of these drugs in a high sense. The use of these drugs in connection with such custom is regarded as essential, simply because it is beneficial to health when temperately used. No doubt it leads to the formation of the habit, and is not injurious if properly used. The social position of a man addicted to the use of these drugs is not much lowered in the eyes of his co-religionists as that of a man given to alcohol. I am not aware of any other, either social or religious customs in regard to the consumption of these drugs, with the exception of the one mentioned by me above, as regards the liking of it by the god Shiva.' Hospital Assistant Rajana Lokajee, Máli Telgu, Thana, says, 'The hemp is regarded by the gosavis, who are the principal consumers, to be the favourite drug of god Mahadev, so they take it in that god's name, first praying that god; but there is no authority, nor it is considered as an essential thing in the religious book. Yes ; from superstitious notions it may lead to the formation of the habit.' Answer No. 61, Army Evidence, says, 'The priests, fakirs and sadhus use charas, ganja and bhang. It makes them unconscious, and during the time they are in this state their souls are supposed to be in communion with the gods. The dose is again renewed when they come to and again they go off to the gods. Those who smoke the ganja and charas call upon Mahadeo before inhaling the smoke from the chillum.' Answer No. 115, Army Evidence, says, ' Fakirs are very fond of these drugs and spread the use. It is considered, as far as I know, against all creeds, and has nothing necessarily to do with social customs.' Answer No. 184, Army Evidence, says, 'It is only a religious custom amongst gosavis and bairagis, and is used to keep their minds fixed on religious subjects. Men meet together to smoke ganja and talk about "Jamat" matters.' Answer No. 255, Army Evidence, says, 'Fakirs or medicants use these drugs to pro¬ tect themselves from cold, and to concentrate their mind towards God, and to subdue their animal passion. Among the Hindus the followers of the Shakat religion consider the use of bhang as compulsory (vide "Bijya Kalp" Shastra).' Answer No. 256, Army Evidence, says, 'I have seen the fakirs and sadhus using charas and ganja to protect their naked bodies from cold, to subdue their animal passions and to concentrate their minds towards God. The religious custom in regard to the consumption of bhang prevails among the Sikhs and the Hindus, who consider the drug to be God Shiva's plant.' Mr. W. H. Grimley, Commissioner of Chota Nagpur, says, 'People who worship Siva and Rama are addicted to the use of ganja and bhang, asserting that they are enabled thereby to divert their mind from worldly affairs to the meditation on the gods whom they worship. The religious mendicants who use it do so not only as a devotional exercise, but also to render themselves fit to undergo the hardships of their ascetic life, and the inclemency of climate incidental to their prolonged pilgrimages to distant places. It may be here remarked that while the classes above noted are allowed by the Hindu religion to use ganja, the "Shaktahs," or followers of the goddess "Shakti," are only permitted to use liquor for devotional purposes, while the Voistabs, or worshippers of Vishnu, are not allowed liquor or ganja. There is a passage in one religious work to the effect that liquor, so far from being used, may not even be smelt. The use of liquor ought to lead to a Brahman being excommunicated, but no degradation necessarily attaches to the use of ganja, and the effects of intoxication are not so openly displayed and offensive to the public as those of ganja.' Trimbak Rao Sathe, Extra Assistant Commissioner, and Diwan of the Sonepur State, says, 'Among gosains, bairagis, and other ascetics the use of both ganja and bhang is looked upon as religiously essential, and their belief is that the god Mahadeo and goddess Debi have ordained that their devotees should use these drugs. Consumers of ganja and bhang among these classes take it in the name of god Mahadeo or goddess Debi, that is, they offer these to the deity before smoking ganja or drinking bhang. These persons are generally excessive consumers.' Apothecary George Murphy, Civil Surgeon, Mandla, says, 'The strolling fakir (bairagi ; prikamba-bashi) acquires excess in ganja and bhang under the impression that it enables him to repress sexual desire, overcome fatigue and narrow his ideas within religious limits. This result is only to be attained by constant and excessive indulgence.' Mir Imdad Ali, Honorary Magistrate, Damoh, says, 'The bairagi class consider it essential, although it is not prescribed in the Shastras. By its use they are enabled to assume an air of meditation and abstraction from the world, due really to ganja intoxication. This imposes on the ignorant, but is condemned by the better educated Hindus. The use of ganja, often in enormous quantities, is universal among bairagis.' Munshi S. Mohamed Unwur Sahib, Tahsildar, Suthanapully Taluk, Kistna District, says, 'It is customary among bairagis, etc., to welcome their friends and relations by offering ganja when they come to see them in the same way as tea or coffee is offered among the civilized people of the West. About half or one tola of ganja is well washed first repeatedly with water in the palm of the left hand, and is squeezed with the thumb of the right hand till it forms into a ball. This ball is put in a small earthen bowl, then fire is put on it and given to the visitor, who smokes by holding the bowl between his two hands. After taking two or three whiffs the bowl is passed on to some others in the company. When this exchange of the bowl takes place, the receiver calls out " Ram! Ram!" and at the same time makes a sort of obeisance to the giver. When the Musalmans exchange the bowls, they call "Jama Alla!" (society of God) ; then the receiver calls out "Ishq-i-Alla" (love of God) and makes some obeisance. The Musalmans place the earthen bowl on the hukka and then smoke.' Surgeon-Major John Lancaster, District Surgeon, North Arcot, says, '(a) It is customary for fakirs and sanyasis in their annual gatherings and anniversary celebrations at tombs and festivals in temples to have ganja and tobacco supplied to them by the guardians of the tombs and temples. (b) Though the use of these articles is not essential on such occasions, yet it is a custom of long standing. (c) The use is sometimes excessive on these occasions. (d) Yes. There is no religious sanction for the practice, which is condemned by many Muhammadans and Hindus.' Nannu Mian B. Shaikh, Municipal Secretary, Surat, says, 'Except amongst the sadhus and fakirs there is no custom, social or religious, to use these drugs. It is often said that a man is not admitted into the fraternity or class of fakirs or sadhus unless he commences with the drinking of bhang or the smoking of ganja. Bhang is generally temperately drunk by the fakirs, but ganja is excessively smoked by the sadhus.' Seth Vishindas Nihalchand, Zamindar, Merchant, and Contractor, Manjoo, Karachi, says, 'Sanyasis call bhang the plant of Shiva (god), and use it as if bound by duty to do so. Such distributions are always moderate and never excessive. No one can get into a habit of drinking by following the above customs, and such occasional uses are never injurious, as very little is given to sufis (those who never take any narcotic), and they are bound to take something.' Surgeon-Major C. L. Swaine, Officiating Sanitary Commissioner, and Inspector- General of Dispensaries, says, 'It is essential that when fakirs, sadhus, and other religious mendicants are assembled for a feast, that before sitting down to their food ganja or bhang should be used. There are no other customs at which it is essential that these drugs should be used that I am aware of.' Khan Bahadur Nawab Muhammad Salamulla Khan, Jagirdar, Deulghat, Buldana District, says, 'There is no social or religious custom amongst Muhammadans of consuming ganja, bhang or charas. The use of all these drugs is strictly forbidden by the Muhammadan religious codes, and the persons dedicated to the use of any of these drugs are looked down upon even by the lowest society of the Muhammadans. Muhammadan fakirs of low class use ganja and bhang openly and publicly, but they are very severely reprimanded by the ministers of religion.'

In response to question 40 and 41, on the medical uses of cannabis, most witnesses again reiterate what they said in response to questions on classes that used cannabis, and questions on the religious use of cannabis. Here are some witness responses to questions 40 and 41. Babu Raghunandan Prasad Sinha, Brahman, Zamindar, District Muzaffarpur, says, 'There is a certain class of sadhus called "tapasvi" and "naga," large in number, who do not live in houses even in the winter season, but in open place, and moreover do not keep cloths upon their bodies, and to them ganja-smoking is a matter of necessity in order to warm them.' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'The immunity of sadhus from the evil effects of exposure to which they are extremely liable is attributed to the use of ganja. I have known members of this class to sit all night on the bank of the Ganges or any equally exposed place in the coldest month of the year without any shelter over their heads or any cloth to cover their bodies except a narrow strip of loin cloth, and to bear this extraordinary exposure with impunity by taking chillum after chillum of ganja.' Babu Mahendra Chandra Mitra, Kayasth, Pleader, Honorary Magistrate, and Municipal Chairman, Naihati, 24-Parganas, says, 'Men with religious tendencies devote themselves to the contemplation of the higher concerns of life, and for these objects and benefits and pleasures, the use of the drug is so widely diffused. Ganja has a famous name Turitanand which the consumers have given it in their affectionate regard for its virtues. It gives delight in a moment.' Mr. E. J. Ebden, Collector, Ahmednagar, says, 'It is asserted that the drug is used by gold smiths and other doers of "barik kam" to keep their minds upon the work in hand, which use seems to be parallel to the alleged use by ascetics for concentration of thought on holy things. Ascetics, however, largely use the drug to appease hunger, and what would be considered excessive consumption in the case of others is moderate in theirs.' Rao Saheb Shesho Krisna Mudkavi, Mamlatdar of Taluka Bijapur, Bijapur, says, 'It is useful to ascetics, bairagis and others going on pilgrimages and travelling in hot or cold countries with or without clothes on.' Balkrishna Narayan Vaidya, Parbhu, State Karbhari of Sangli, says, 'Most of the gosains, bairagis, and fakirs use ganja as a febrifuge or preventive of disease in malarious and unhealthy tracts, and as a drug to give staying power under severe exertion or exposure or to alleviate fatigue.' Babu Beprodas Banerjee, Brahman, Pleader, Newspaper Editor, and Chairman, Baraset Municipality, says, 'As a preventive of diseases one has only to look at the sadhus, who have to remain on mountains, travel through jungles and marshes. Bhairavis (female ascetics) use ganja and bhang. People have a notion that these people possess wonderful medicines. Most medicines they give contain opium and bhang, though mercury is used too. In malarious places opium is extensively consumed. It is a remarkable fact that ganja smokers were free from attacks of fever when malaria appeared in Baraset, etc.' Nannu Mian B. Shaikh, Municipal Secretary, Surat, says, 'I have seen sadhus enduring after a smoke of ganja any amount of cold without feeling its least effect. I have seen sadhus standing in ice-like cold water throughout the winter night and morning with northeast cold wind blowing.' Desaibhai Kalidas, Brahmin (Khedaval), Government Pleader and Public Prosecutor, Kaira, says, 'Charas and ganja, in proportion to their respective intoxicating power, keep great warmth in the body in cold season and countries; owing to their use, cold does not affect the body ; the effects of sleeplessness and fatigue are counteracted and idleness is removed. Sadhus, bairagis, etc., use these two drugs more than any other because by their help they are enabled to live and lie in open air in severe weather without anything to spread or cover their body, and because they can safely bathe with cold water in any weather without feeling cold or shiver. For these effects the moderate habitual use of the drugs is necessary...The habitual moderate use of charas and ganja removes moodiness, keeps the mind cheerful, enables full concentration of mind in their worship and prayers, weakens and destroys the semen virile, and thereby deadens sexual desires — the most necessary desideratum for sadhus, etc. — makes the body vigorous and energetic, and increases courage and promotes the power of sufferance. Charas and ganja are used by sadhus, bairagis, etc., for these purposes, so that they may be able to worship God with concentration without any fatigue and the effects of exposure, etc. The sanyasis use bhang, but never ganja or charas, for the purpose of concentration in study and meditation.'

The spread of misinformation by the upper classes and castes

We see the misconceptions and the spread of misinformation by the ruling upper classes and castes in many of the witness statements, where they label spiritual mendicants as beggars, vagabonds, criminal, etc. There is no doubt that many charlatans also donned the religious attire of certain religious orders to beg, deceive and rob the people. Considering that the upper classes and castes robbed the whole of society, and thrived and were much respected for their behavior, it is no surprise that greedy criminals who looked up to the upper classes and castes with admiration, and who wished nothing more than to be rich like the upper classes, also adopted the attire of these classes and castes and robbed the public. The only difference was that these charlatans were poor, and so they got caught sometimes, unlike the upper classes and castes who committed crimes on such large scales, and amassed so much wealth, that they controlled law enforcement itself. This is as common a sight today as it was in the past. The use of ganja by the spiritual mendicant was coupled with the myth that cannabis was connected with crime.The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission explored the myth of cannabis causing crime in detail in the 19th century. Its findings stated that '546. There seems, therefore, good reason for believing that the connection between hemp drugs and ordinary crime is very slight indeed. There remains for discussion their alleged connection with unpremeditated crime, especially crimes of violence. In this connection it seemed only necessary to consider the excessive use of the drugs. This, then, was the question put before the witnesses, whether excessive indulgence in any of these drugs incites to unpremeditated crime, and whether they knew cases in which it had led to temporary homicidal frenzy. This question has been discussed by nearly six hundred witnesses, of whom a majority of very nearly three to two answer in the negative. They do not believe in any such connection. Their experience has not brought before them cases in which that connection seemed to exist. Some of them have clear recollection of crime being associated by causation with alcohol, but cannot recall any case in which it was similarly associated with hemp drugs. They will not go beyond their experience, and therefore they answer in the negative. Some of them go further than this. They go so far as to say that these drugs not only do not incite to crime, but have the very opposite tendency. They are of opinion that the drugs "tend to make men quiet;" that "the immediate effect is stupefying; there is none of that tendency to violence which is a characteristic of alcoholic intoxication;" and that the result of continued abuse of the drugs is to make a man "timid and unlikely to commit crime." These last statements cannot be accepted as generally true. No doubt the drugs may sometimes have these sedative effects, though a number of witnesses speak to habitual use producing irritability. Any one who has extensively visited ganja shops or places where consumers congregate must be struck with the perfect quiet which prevails in the great majority, and with the slothful, easy attitude of the consumers. These are not, however, the invariable effects of hemp drugs. Undoubtedly the excessive use does in some cases make the consumer violent. It is probably safe to say in view of all the evidence that the tendency of the drugs often seems to be to develop or bring into play the natural disposition of the consumer, to emphasize his characteristic peculiarities, or to assist him in obtaining what he sets his mind on. If he aims at ease and rest and is let alone, he will be quiet and restful; but if he is naturally excitable and ill-tempered, or if he is disturbed and crossed, he may be violent. This may be accepted perhaps as generally true if allowance be specially made for the fact that excess in the use of these drugs tends to show and to develop inherent weakness of character. At the same time the fact that so many witnesses testify to the peaceable and orderly character of the excessive consumers goes far to prove that in this country experience shows that as a rule these drugs do not tend to crime and violence.' Further, implicating alcohol as a much more likely cause of crime, findings that have been well corroborated by the United Nations Office of Drug Control (UNODC) and other modern institutions in the recent past, the Commission says, '542. In discussing the connection of hemp drugs with crime, it is necessary to discriminate between any effect which they may be supposed to produce on crime in general and the unpremeditated crimes of violence to which intoxication may give rise. Thus there are those who allege that the habitual use of alcohol, at all events if carried to excess, degrades the mind and character of the consumer and predisposes him to crime in general, or to crimes of a particular character, especially to offences against property. Drink is thus set down sometimes as one of the most efficient agencies for increasing the criminal classes. On the other hand, there are well known cases in which intoxication from alcohol has led to crimes of an occasional and exceptional character, generally to unpremeditated crimes of violence or other unpremeditated offences against the person. These two classes of cases should be carefully distinguished and treated separately.' In its summary of the findings regarding the connection of cannabis with crime, the Commission states that '552 Summary of conclusions regarding effects: In regard to the moral effects of the drugs, the Commission are of opinion that their moderate use produces no moral injury whatever. There is no adequate ground for believing that it injuriously affects the character of the consumer. Excessive consumption, on the other hand, both indicates and intensifies moral weakness or depravity. Manifest excess leads directly to loss of selfrespect, and thus to moral degradation. In respect to his relations with society, however, even the excessive consumer of hemp drugs is ordinarily inoffensive. His excesses may indeed bring him to degraded poverty which may lead him to dishonest practices; and occasionally, but apparently very rarely indeed, excessive indulgence in hemp drugs may lead to violent crime. But for all practical purposes it may be laid down that there is little or no connection between the use of hemp drugs and crime.' This did not however stop some from associating spiritual mendicants - who were the most content, non-violent, peace-loving, gentle class that smoked ganja - with criminals, without having any proof whatsoever that the said criminal was indeed a spiritual mendicant, or even if he was under the influence of ganja. Similarly, we see the lumping together of spiritual mendicants with beggars and vagabonds, who were two entirely different classes, as we shall see further in this article. 

But this maligning of the spiritual mendicant had its desired effect on society, increasing the oppression of the spiritual mendicant, and eventually driving the class to extinction, even as the corruption in society rose, and society continued to deteriorate. Mr. N. K. Bose, Officiating Magistrate and Collector of Noakhali, says,'ganja is smoked by...religious mendicants (such as sanyasis or fakirs, bairagis)...The Bairagis as a class are all excessive smokers. They are professional beggars, and form the bulk of ganja-smoking population.'  Babu Gobind Chandra Das, Baidya, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Malda, says, 'The sanyasis and bairagis are generally those who, in early life, were of the same class as village vagabonds, and who became sanyasis and bairagis after committing some crime, or having been detected carrying on an intrigue with some females.' Pyari Sankar Dass Gupta, Baidya, Medical Practitioner, Secretary, Bogra Medical Society, Bogra, says, 'Sanyasis, bairagis, and fakirs smoke ganja. The number of them smoking ganja far surpasses any other class...These are indolent, of violent temperament, unsociable, and unfit for any higher function of life. (b) Many of the above classes, corrupt young men of higher classes, and badmashes of all religious sects. The ascetics are indolent and live on alms, and the other classes are wrong-doers and criminals...They have no control over their actions, and so more dangerous.' Babu Abinas Chandradass, M. A., B. L., Pleader, Judge's Court, Bankura, says, 'The sanyasis as a class smoke ganja...Sanyasis are habitual moderate and excessive consumers of ganja and bhang...The ganja and charas smokers are always a degenerate and disrespectable lot.'  Mr. G. Cloney, Superintendent of Jail, Tanjore, says, 'From my knowledge and experience I should say that habitual excessive ganja smokers belong to that class, summarised under the definitions bad and doubtful livelihood, vagrants, fakirs and the criminal classes generally.' C. Muthu Kumaraswamy Mudelliar, Zamindar, Chunampet, Chingleput, says, 'The medicants, who impose on the superstitious public with the garb of an ascetic, take to this habit of smoking. This habit of smoking is invariably found among the Hindustani bairagis or pilgrims from the north.' Sagi Rama Sastry, Brahmin, Inamdar and Native Doctor, Rajahmundry, Godavari District, says, 'I know only that gosains and bairagis smoke the drug, and not respectable men...'

The fact that a number of fakirs - spiritual mendicants from Muslim communities - also widely smoked ganja and charas would have surely irked the Hindu upper classes and castes, further fueling their desire to prohibit ganja, even though the largest section of ganja smokers among the spiritual mendicants were followers of Siva and his consort Shakti. Mr. M. Hammick, Acting Collector of South Arcot, says, 'Chiefly wanderers from other parts of India and the lowest class of Muhammadans.' Mr. C. H. Mounsey, Acting Collector of Cuddapah, says, 'Musalman fakirs. Smoking ganja, seems universal among them. They meet together in the early morning at makkams and smoke in company. Ganja smoking is further said to be not unknown among any other class of Musalmans or any caste of Hindus; but the higher the caste the less the probability of the people thereof smoking; and, expect the low castes, the smoking is indulged in their own houses...Chiefly fakirs smoke.' Dewan Bahadur K. V. Lakshamana Row Garu, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, North Arcot, says, 'Muhammadan bairagis...' G. Jagannayakulu, Acting Tahsildar, Gooty, says, 'It is only among fakirs mostly that the above classes are taken from, who go a-begging.'

We see also the misconceptions among a number of witnesses that the spiritual mendicant was a lazy person who was under the wrong impression that cannabis was beneficial to him. It may have been the case that the witness mistook a vagabond for a spiritual person. But the spiritual mendicant was far from lazy, as his excellent physical health would have clearly shown, and neither was the vagabond, as we shall later see. Whether the person was a spiritual mendicant, vagabond or a beggar, the scientific fact cannot be denied that cannabis was beneficial to him, as can be seen from the widespread evidence of its benefits to both the working classes and the outcasts who formed the poorest sections of society. To say that the person who uses cannabis is 'under the impression that it is beneficial' only shows the complete lack of knowledge on the subject by witnesses who have probably never consumed cannabis in their lives, or faced a single day of hardship in their lives. The Commission says, 'Then, again, a great deal of the vague evidence regarding the general injury to the constitution alleged to result from the use of hemp drugs is based on what the witnesses know of fakirs and wandering mendicants who consume the drugs. It is surprising to find witnesses who have had years of experience, whose work has brought them into close contact with the ordinary life of the people, testifying that they have never seen the drugs used except by religious mendicants, or known any of the effects of the drugs except as shown in these classes. The mendicant, if he is ascetic, is naturally of a very spare and even emaciated appearance. The use by such mendicants is better known to the community generally than the use by any other class. The mendicant pushes himself to the front wherever he goes, and he has no hesitation in asking for precisely the thing he wants at the time. His use of hemp is therefore known to all who meet him. The life he leads—a wandering, homeless life of exposure and self-imposed privation and unrest—makes him as a rule thin and miserable in appearance. This appearance of the man, an unknown stranger, once seen perhaps as he passes through the village on his round of India, and never seen again, is often associated in the mind of the witness with the use of hemp and not with the life that really produces it. Allowance must also be made for the large proportion of cases of excess which must have been found among the comparatively few cases observed by the witnesses. The religious mendicant, for example, uses hemp drugs very frequently to excess; and this is the class which has hitherto attracted most the attention of the witnesses. As to the cases seen since the Commission's questions drew attention to the subject, it must be borne in mind that they are of necessity chiefly cases of excess.' Unless something is beneficial for a person in some form, the person would not cultivate a habit of extensive usage of that thing. To consume large amounts of ganja for so long, and to still remain healthy and youthful, shows that besides being beneficial, cannabis was also not harmful, unlike opium and alcohol, a fact that was proven by the Hemp Commission in its study of physical harms of cannabis use. The Commission summarizes the findings of the questions regarding the physical harms of cannabis use, saying - 'Viewing the subject generally, it may be added that the moderate use of these drugs is the rule, and that the excessive use is comparatively exceptional. The moderate use practically produces no ill effects. In all but the most exceptional cases, the injury from habitual moderate use is not appreciable. The excessive use may certainly be accepted as very injurious, though it must be admitted that in many excessive consumers the injury is not clearly marked. The injury done by the excessive use is, however, confined almost exclusively to the consumer himself; the effect on society is rarely appreciable. It has been the most striking feature in this inquiry to find how little the effects of hemp drugs have obtruded themselves on observation. The large number of witnesses of all classes who professed never to have seen these effects, the vague statements made by many who professed to have observed them, the very few witnesses who could so recall a case as to give any definite account of it, and the manner in which a large proportion of these cases broke down on the first attempt to examine them, are facts which combine to show most clearly how little injury society has hitherto sustained from hemp drugs.'  It was a rarity to sight a spiritual mendicant. To gauge his level of intoxication and his impressions as he passes you by on the street probably once in your entire requires genius.

For the upper classes and castes, anybody from the lower classes and castes who did not do anything that they considered as useful work, i.e. anything that did not make the upper classes and castes wealthier, was labeled as idle or indolent or lazy. The superhuman states of mental ecstasy obtained by the spiritual mendicant and the nature of his life was considered of no use by these upper classes and castes who looked at everything in existence through the lens of benefit for themselves. I do not think that many people would have called the monks and nuns living in the religious orders of the west as lazy and indolent because they drank wine, but here in India, the spiritual mendicant is the target of both native and British upper classes and castes. Considering that the spiritual mendicant rarely had contact with the upper classes and castes, and even less contact with the British administration, the readiness of these classes to judge the mendicant as lazy or indolent without having the slightest idea of how he lived his life, is nothing short of misinformation. Mr. K. G. Gupta, Commissioner of Excise, Bengal, says '.. mendicants, including sanyasis and sadhus, who lead idle lives, are, as a rule, habitual excessive consumers, the idea being that ganja-smoking helps their meditations.' Babu Ganendra Nath Pal, Kayasth, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Naogaon, says, 'It is said that, as a matter of course, people taken to ascetic life must take to smoking ganja, because these people think that it is not possible to stand the hardship of ascetic life unless some sort of stimulant is used, and they take to ganja smoking as it is cheapest of all intoxicants.' Babu Navin Krishna Banerji, Brahman, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Purulia, District Manbhum, says, 'Sanyasis and fakirs who have little or no work and often travel unprotected in different climates cannot do without ganja.' Assistant Surgeon Devendranath Roy, Brahmin, Teacher of Medical Jurisprudence, Campbell Medical School, Calcutta, says, 'They have more leisure, no domestic cares, and they have to make long journeys, and have also to be exposed to the vicissitudes of temperature; hence they indulge in those drugs.' Pyari Sankar Dass Gupta, Baidya, Medical Practitioner, Secretary, Bogra Medical Society, Bogra, says, 'The ascetics are indolent and live on alms...' Babu Rughu Nandan Prasadha, Zamindar, Patna, says, 'From the fact that sadhus and pandas, as above mentioned, are habitual excessive consumers, it may be inferred that idleness and immunity from worldly cares as to the provision of the necessaries of life, combined with the notion that the two drugs are helpful to the concentration of mind for religious purposes, are important factors which lead to habitual excessive use.' Colonel M. M. Bowie, Commissioner, Nerbudda Division, says, 'The habitual excessive consumers are chiefly religious mendicants, who use it, I believe, because they have nothing else to do.' Bhargow Laxmon Gadgit, Brahmin, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Nagpur, says, 'The habitual excessive smokers are the class of mendicants and fakirs whose wandering life makes them indifferent to the worldly affairs. They are often beggars, and as their wants are satisfied by the charitable public, they do not care what amount they spend. The life they lead is peculiar; they are idlers, and they associate with them such reckless characters that when they assemble and begin to smoke they go to excess; they thus form this habit of excessive smoking. Their justification for their conduct, as they say, is that by excessive smoking they do not feel the effect of cold and rain; and bairagis say that it assists them in concentrating their thoughts in one direction, and they can practise "yoga" better under the influence of ganja...' Pandit Narayan Rao Gobind, Brahmin, Zamindar, Hurda, says, 'The people who use ganja are not regarded with respectability, and therefore its use is generally made in secrecy...It does not depend upon any particular class of the people, but low-paid labourers, and the gosains and bairagis who always keep travelling are, owing to the effect of society, taken to this intoxication.' Mr. J. H. Gwynne, Deputy Collector, Wynaad, Malabar District, says, 'The circumstances which mainly lead to the practice are idleness, mendicancy, and an inclination for intoxicants.' Apothecary N. H. Daniel, In charge Police Hospital, Koraput, Vizagapatam District, says, 'Vagabonds from idleness and want of any definite occupation.' Masdar Ali, Pleader, Sylhet, says, 'Fakirs, sanyasis and people suffering from incurable maladies...Vagrancy, idleness, disease, etc.' Rao Bahadur Bhaskar Rao Ramchandra Heblikar, Brahmin, Deputy Collector, Sholapur, says, 'Gosavis, bairagis and fakirs are generally men of idle habits, and desire to while away their time in a state of intoxication.' Rao Bahadur Rango Ramchandra Bhardi, Deputy Collector and Native Assistant to the Commissioner, Poona, Central Division, says, 'The habits of bairagis, gosávis and fakirs, who are generally habitual excessive consumers, are well known. They are the most indolent and useless persons in the world. They wander about the country begging, and indulge in the use of the drugs. Many illiterate persons acquire the habit of using the drugs with the association of these beggars. Some acquire the habit by using the drugs on account of their medicinal qualities. Some acquire it by using the drugs under the belief that they produce concentration of thoughts.' Ramchandra Krishna Kothavale, Brahmin, Inamdur, Taluka Wai, in Satara District, says, 'Generally beggars who have given up the worldly cares and anxieties take to this vice...' Desaibhai Kalidas, Brahmin (Khedaval), Government Pleader and Public Prosecutor, Kaira, says, 'most of them are sadhus and bairagis and such other religious mendicants, who having left the world devote their life in pilgrimages and worship and meditation of God. Besides these, those who lead a vagabondish life and maintain themselves on the alms they get from Sadavrats are greatly addicted to ganja smoking. The three higher classes, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, look down upon these practices ; and those who use ganja or charas are hated by the public...They are most of them non-Brahmins, who having left the world for one reason or another (whether of poverty, disinclination to undergo the toils of earning a livelihood, or from purely religious motives) take to this habit by the open practice of the class to which they belong. The rest are from all classes, but those who take to this habit (of ganja-smoking in Gujarat) are generally leading a vagabondish life, who having no brains for useful pursuits, and having plenty of money and bad company, are avowed spendthrifts, or, being penniless and without employment, kill their time by this sort of indulgence in company of their well-to-do friends or sadhus, etc. Such people coming in connection with brothels of vice, or being given to loafing habits, take to this as a pastime or to drown their moral degradation.' Vickooji Narain, Tahsildar, Kathapur, says, 'Only those who are idle, funny, and without any employment mainly lead to these drugs.' Laxman Gopal Deshpande, Brahmin, Naib Tahsildar, Mangrul Taluk, District Basim, says, 'The practice is mainly contracted owing to the bad association. Generally these classes of the people lead an idle life.' G. V. Kot, Brahmin, Medical Practitioner, Amraoti, says, 'The smokers are generally of the lowest grades of society and the respectable who have been addicted to smoking are generally through contact or association with the low, or occasionally the habit has been induced to allay pain or infirmity...The religious mendicants both in Hindus and Muhammadans who pass idle lives and persons living on charities are generally addicted to this vice.' Lakshman Atmaram Mahajan, Merchant, Manjrul Pir, says, 'The lazy and careless use these drugs.' Mr. A. Boppanna, Planter, Bepunaad, Green Hills, Coorg, says, 'Lazy and idle life, fakir's and bairagi's life, beggarly life...as a rule, take to ganja smoking.'

Not only were many from the upper classes and castes against intoxication, but they were also against sexual liberty among the lower classes and castes. They repeatedly labeled the sexual behavior of the lower classes and castes as immoral and loose, whereas it is an obvious fact that the same sort of sexual behavior was as common among the upper classes and castes as it was among the lower classes and castes. The clearest evidence of this hypocrisy is the labeling of sex workers who consumed cannabis as loose and immoral, when in fact the majority of the clientele for the sex workers were men from the upper classes and castes. This hypocrisy of the upper classes and castes did not spare even the spiritual mendicant who was above all morals, for whom intoxication and sexuality were natural, and whose outlook to life was free and unbounded by absurd laws made by insane humans. Babu A. K. Ray, Sub-Divisional Magistrate, Bangaon, Jessore District, says, 'Amongst the bairagies it is also largely used as an aphrodisiac, the morality of this class of people who are mostly found in pairs (man and woman) being exceedingly loose.' Mr. C. E. S. Stafford Steele, Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Thar and Parkar District, says, 'Charas and ganja are taken very often in the first instance moderately with a view to increasing the sexual powers. Excess follows with the result that loss of power ensues, and the constitution becomes enfeebled.' Rao Bahadur Lashmansing Matthraji, Police Inspector, Hyderabad, Sind, says, 'Bad company or debauchery leads to these habits.' 

The decline of the spiritual mendicant

As civilizations that had reached their zenith started to decline with the advent of caste-based religions - religions that professed that nature was an evil to be shunned - and the increasing importance given to wealth, the tide of time started turning against the spiritual mendicant. Nietzsche writes in The Will to Power, 'It is precisely to the memory of great men that the most injury is done, for the partial successes and failures lead us to misjudge them, by blunting the force of their example by referring us to their 'achievements'. Whenever someone proves to have an 'influence', a mob enters the scene; it is painful to listen to the chatter of the petty and the poor in spirit, especially for those who shudder to think that the fate of mankind depends on the success of its highest type. Ever since I was a child I have pondered the question: what conditions are necessary for the development of the sage?' The substrata of soil that was needed for these highest forms of humans to survive started to lose its fertility. Religions started to replace spirituality. The divine truth that 'all form is god manifested' started to get distorted, as religions began to create divisiveness between god and human, between nature and human, and between nature and god. Moralistic concepts such as good and evil started to take more prominence and precedence. Some people came to proclaim themselves as the ones with knowledge of what was good and what was evil. God itself was cleaved into two divisions - one good and one evil, and the evil division came to be given a new name, the Devil. Society became divided into classes and castes, where certain classes and castes were good, while other classes and castes were evil. Nature itself became divided into good and evil, where certain animals and plants were good, while other animals and plants were evil. People who worshipped god in a certain form were considered good, while those who worshipped god in another form were considered evil. The fragmentation of the human mind resulted in fragmentation of society, nature and god. There was no more the complete human, only fragments of humans, capable of thinking only in fragments. 

Amidst all this deterioration and division of the human intellect - which is essentially insanity where the knowledge of the whole gets fragmented into pieces of incomplete knowledge or delusion - the spiritual mendicant, who was the highest form of human evolution - no less than god personified - came to be looked at through the lens of good and evil. The spiritual mendicant defied all attempts and conventional categorization, since he was not a part, but the whole. He baffled most people who saw him and tried to understand him by slotting him into the categories that they had developed based on their limited experiences. Every one of the spiritual mendicants was found to be evil, since they were perfectly sane and would not reduce themselves to seeing reality in parts and fragments. They could not be classified according to the morals and conventions of the insane who tried to classify every human as good or evil, like they tried to classify every god, every creation of nature, and every action of a human. Those who claimed to possess the knowledge of good and evil - the high priests of the new religions - condemned the spiritual mendicant as a threat to society, a troublemaker, an insane, a criminal, and a vagabond...They said that the spiritual mendicant was a lazy, immoral, contemptible person, a parasite who lived off the toil of society and so should be eliminated. So, with the decline of society, we see the decline of the spiritual mendicants, as we see in parallel the decline of nature. Just as the apex animals - the tiger, elephant, and king cobra - were hunted to near extinction, so was the spiritual mendicant. He was imprisoned or sent to a lunatic asylum, in some cases. In some cases, he was beaten up on false accusations of kidnapping children or theft. In many cases, he may have died of hunger. We see the decline of the spiritual mendicant classes in all the ancient societies that once were at their zenith with the decline in their spiritual power. In Greece, China, India and Egypt, as divisive religions rose and gained in strength, the spiritual mendicant classes rapidly shrunk in numbers and today can be considered an extinct class of society. 

Writing about the methods used to eliminate the spiritual mendicant from society, Nietzsche writes in The Will to Power, 'The ruin and the degeneration of the solitary species is much greater and more terrible; they have the instinct of the herd and the traditional values against them; their defences, their protective instincts, are insufficiently strong or reliable from the outset - they require more favorable accidents if they are to thrive (they thrive among the lowest elements, the elements most forsaken by society; if you are seeking persons, it is there that you will find them, certainly much more so than in the middle classes!). When the struggle between the estates, the class struggle which aims at 'equality of rights', is almost settled, the struggle begins against the solitary person. In a certain sense the latter can maintain and develop himself most readily in a democratic society, where crude means of defence are no longer necessary, and certain habits of order, honesty, justice, trust, are part of ordinary conditions. The strongest must be firmly bound, supervised, chained and guarded: so says the gregarious instinct. For them, a regime of self-subjugation, of ascetic detachment or of the 'duty' to engage in exhausting labour which prevents them from recovering their self-possession.'

As those who claimed knowledge of good and evil labelled the spiritual mendicant as evil, they subtly also labeled Siva as evil. They labeled ganja as an evil drug that caused a person to become lazy, immoral, criminal and insane. By removing the fuel that enabled the spiritual mendicant to exist, the high priests of the newer religions also replaced god as visualized and personified by the spiritual mendicants with god as visualized by the high priests of the new religions. God was no longer inclusive, all form and all void, but god was exclusive. There was god and those who believed in him, and there were the others. The others were the enemy that needed to be eliminated. The oldest known spiritual mendicants, called various names in different cultures - Siva, Dionysus, Jehovah, Allah, Osiris, Jove, etc., - and even the newer set of spiritual mendicants - Jesus, Buddha, Mohammed, Mahavir, etc., - were done away with and replaced by a set of rules that the high priests put down as laws that they claimed had been communicated to them by these spiritual mendicants. These laws cleaved the spiritual mendicant into good and evil, and threw out what the priests considered as evil, and retained what they considered as good - a plastic, sanitized, unreal image that had almost no resemblance to the original being. This is the dismembering of god that was done. It was like taking a tiger and removing its claws and teeth, or removing the venom and fangs from the king cobra, or the tusks of the wild elephant. This doctored image of the spiritual mendicant was then broadcast across society, and the masses were made to believe that this is what god wanted humans to be like...Docile, servile, obedient and compliant with the wishes of the high priests...According to this sanitized version of god created by the upper classes and castes, god had some strict criteria of moral conduct, which defined him and separated him from his counterpart, the Devil. He did not like sex, intoxication, flesh-eating, pleasures of the senses, music, dancing, ecstasy...These were all attributes of the Devil. But in reality, it is the whole, and not the fragment, which is complete. And, it has infinite forms beyond the limits of conceptualization by humans and their childlike concepts of good and evil. Nietzsche writes in the chapter on Dionysus, in The Will to Power, 'And how many new gods are still possible!...I myself, in whom the religious, that is, the god-seeking instinct occasionally becomes animated at the most inopportune times: how differently, how variously, the divine reveals itself to me each time!...So many strange things have passed before me in those timeless moments, which fell as if from the moon into my life, moments in which I no longer knew how old I already was or how young I might yet become!...I would not doubt that there are many kinds of gods...There is no lack of gods who possess a certain undeniable Halcyonism and blitheness...Perhaps even light feet belong to the notion of a god. Is it necessary to explain that a god prefers to remain beyond everything respectable and reasonable? Even, between ourselves, beyond good and evil? 'His outlook is free' - as Goethe would say. And to invoke the inestimable authority of Zarathustra: Zarathustra goes as far as to confess, 'I would only believe in a god who knew how to dance...' To say it again: how many new gods are still possible! Admittedly, Zarathustra is himself merely an old atheist. Understand him well! He believes in neither the old gods or the new. Zarathustra says that he would - Zarathustra will not...'

The prohibition of cannabis, the fuel of the spiritual mendicant

In 19th century India, the British had more or less established themselves as the rulers. They now desired to spread the use of alcohol, tobacco and opium among the Indian population so as to gain more revenue from these products that the British and Indian upper classes largely used. Cannabis usage was widely prevalent in India, and had been so for thousands of years. It was an intrinsic part of Indian society, as medicine, intoxicant and entheogen. It was used especially by India's poorest classes and castes who cultivated it extensively and consumed it at almost no cost. Cannabis was available in various retail outlets, like any other commodity, and cost very little, enabling even the poorest persons to purchase it. The poorest persons, who could not afford even these low prices, grew their own ganja at home or were given ganja as alms by those who possessed it. There was absolutely no regulation or curbs on the cultivation, trade or consumption of cannabis. This had been so even during the nearly five centuries of rule by Muslim kings in India from the 12th to the 18th century. In such a conducive atmosphere, the spiritual mendicant class in India flourished. They were easily the biggest consumers of cannabis smoked as ganja or charas, and eaten or drunk as bhang. Many spiritual mendicants grew their own ganja when they were able to, and otherwise received it as alms from the people around them. 

To increase the use of alcohol, tobacco and opium, the British administration needed to suppress and diminish the use of cannabis. This they started doing in various ways in the provinces where they had complete control. They brought about strict regulation where cannabis could only be cultivated and sold under license, they raided the cost of licenses, reduced the areas of cultivation, reduced retail outlets, increased the price of ganja, and slowly started taking law enforcement action against those who grew ganja in their homes. The administration started circulating various myths to create the impression that cannabis was harmful. Among the myths they created was that: cannabis was more harmful to health than opium, alcohol and tobacco; cannabis caused insanity; cannabis was used by criminals and increased crime; only the lowest classes and castes consumed cannabis; cannabis consumers were addicted to it; and so on... Besides these steps taken on the economic and social fronts, there was the implicit desire of both the British administration and the Indian upper classes and castes to convert the spiritual mendicants, aboriginal tribes and indigenous communities to their forms of religion - the caste-based religions and their newer religions of Christianity and Islam. Through this, the British administration and the Indian upper classes and castes sought to recruit the spiritual mendicants, aboriginal tribes and indigenous communities into the worker classes of the caste-based system. Many had resisted these attempts, retaining their earlier ways of life and using ganja to continue to exist outside the caste and class-based systems. Most ganja smokers were followers of the casteless and classless societies of Siva and his many forms that the indigenous communities and aboriginal tribes worshipped. Many were also worshippers of Siva's consort, Shakti and her many forms. Muslim fakirs too were classless and casteless spiritual mendicants. In the prohibition of cannabis, the British administration and Indian upper classes and castes saw an opportunity to bring these outcasts into the working classes to work and increase their own wealth. Most upper classes and castes, and the British administration despised these communities since they were content and immune to the attempts to gain control over them so far. The spiritual mendicant class was especially despised, since they were revered and adored by the indigenous communities and aboriginal tribes. The spiritual mendicants also showed the British administration, Indian upper classes and castes for what they were - greedy imbeciles who wished to become more wealthy and powerful through domination over the majority of India, and to use the people of India to plunder its wealth and natural resources. For this, they were feared and hated even more by the ruling classes. As a part of the steps taken by the British administration and the Indian upper classes and castes to bring about ganja prohibition in India, the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission was set up. It studied the usage of ganja in 1894 and 1895 as charas, bhang, majum - all different forms of cannabis or hemp as it was also called - and submitted its report.

On the basis of the overwhelming evidence of usage of ganja and charas by the spiritual mendicant class, the Hemp Commission said in its summary that, 'General review of evidence: 585. A general review of the evidence relating to the question of prohibition of ganja and charas brings the Commission to the same conclusion as that which they have framed upon a consideration of the evidence on the ascertained effects alone. The weight of the evidence above abstracted is almost entirely against prohibition. Not only is such a measure unnecessary with reference to the effects, but it is abundantly proved that it is considered unnecessary or impossible by those most competent to form an opinion on general grounds of experience; that it would be strongly resented by religious mendicants, or would be regarded as an interference with religion, or would be likely to become a political danger; and that it might lead to the use of dhatura or other intoxicants worse than ganja. Apart from all this, there is another consideration which has been urged in some quarters with a manifestation of strong feeling, and to which the Commission are disposed to attach some importance, viz., that to repress the hemp drugs in India and to leave alcohol alone would be misunderstood by a large number of persons who believe, and apparently not without reason, that more harm is done in this country by the latter than by the former. The conclusion of the Commission regarding bhang has been given in paragraph 564; under all the circumstances they now unhesitatingly give their verdict against such a violent measure as total prohibition in respect of any of the hemp drugs.' The Commission also stated that 'The Commission have little doubt that interference with the use of hemp in connection with the customs and observances above referred to would be regarded by the consumers as an interference with long established usage and as an encroachment upon their religious liberty.'

But despite these findings, the British administration and the Indian upper classes and castes went ahead with the prohibition of ganja and charas, since this was the intention in the first place. The study was possibly intended by the administration to find damning proof against the evils of ganja and charas that would justify prohibition. Instead, they found overwhelming proof as to why it should not be prohibited, and widespread opposition to cannabis prohibition. One thing though that the report revealed was that the majority of ganja and charas users were the poorest people in India, gentle and peace loving, with no voice of their own. They also found that the upper classes and castes were on the side of the British administration. This was all the information that the administration needed, sufficient to impose prohibition of ganja and charas on the people of India.

I estimate that at the zenith of Indian civilization, around 10% of the population would have been spiritual mendicants. That number rapidly declined, with the caste-based religions finding support from the British who joined hands with them to take control over the rule and administration of India. Even during the centuries of Muslim rule, the spiritual mendicants as a class remained significant, with many Muslim fakirs being a part of the class. I think no other factor is more responsible for the drastic decline of the spiritual mendicant class than the prohibition of ganja, their spiritual fuel. The number of spiritual mendicants declined especially with the prohibition of ganja starting from the 19th century. Two of the most prominent spiritual mendicants who shone in society even as it declined are Sai Baba of Shirdi and Ramana Maharishi of Thiruvanamalai. Now the spiritual mendicant is almost completely invisible as a class.

Women, as a part of the spiritual mendicant class, were probably a minority given the hardships that life in this class entailed. There were however definitely women spiritual mendicants. They too led solitary lives. If a male and female spiritual mendicant started to travel together and live together, it detracted them from the purpose of concentrating their thoughts on the eternal spirit. Having children together would mean having to consider means of livelihood to support their children, settling down and abandoning their wandering lives. They, then, became householders and part of the caste hierarchy, being slotted into the lowest caste or worker category.

The spiritual mendicant, as the supreme class of human beings, is almost extinct. He has been buried under centuries of lies and deceit, of insanity and the deterioration of the human mind. The upper classes and caste have systematically suppressed, killed and buried the spiritual mendicant. They do all they can so that the nature of the spiritual mendicant remains hidden forever under misinformation. They distract the people of the world from ever understanding what the spiritual mendicant is as a class of humans. They do this out of the fear that the return of the spiritual mendicant will spell the doom of their dominance of the world. It will be the return of god on earth, and the end of the world as we now know it and think it to be true. It will mean the Armageddon of all that has reduced the world to fragments and insanity, and will bring about the transfiguration that makes the world complete again. It will be the return of paradise on earth when man loses his madness of seeing the world split into two - good and evil. Ganja is the fuel of the spiritual mendicant. It is the spiritual fuel of Siva, called by many names in many places - Dionysus by the Greeks, Jehovah and Allah by the Hebrews and Arabs, Osiris by the Egyptians...If ganja is legalized everywhere, the soil of the human mind will be fertile once again to nurture the return of the spiritual mendicant as the highest form of human evolution. Right now, we only hear a passing mention of the names Siva, Dionysus and Jehovah in a human world that has developed amnesia. But wherever the name appears, it transfigures the world like no other. Nietzsche writes in the chapter on Dionysus, in The Will to Power, 'When the Greek body and soul were 'flourishing', rather than languishing in mania and madness, there arose that mysterious symbol of the highest affirmation of the world and transfiguration of life ever attained on earth. This provides a standard according to which everything that has grown up since must be deemed too stunted, too impoverished, too inhibited - we only need to utter the word 'Dionysus' before the best modernity has to offer, before such names as Goethe, or Beethoven, or Shakespeare, or Raphael, and suddenly we feel that our best things and moments have been judged and found wanting. Dionysus is a judge! Do you understand me? There can be no doubt that the Greeks drew upon their Dionysus experiences to interpret the ultimate mysteries 'concerning the fate of the soul' and everything they knew about education and refinement and, above all, about the immutable hierarchy and inequality of men; and yet without access to these experiences everything Greek is buried in a great and profound silence - we do not know the Greeks as long as this secret subterranean passage into their world is still obstructed. The prying eyes of scholars will never bring to light some of these things, however much scholarship remains to be done in the service of that excavation - even the noble enthusiasm of such lovers of antiquity as Goethe and Winckelmann has something improper and almost presumptuous about it. But he who waits and prepares himself; who awaits the welling-up of new springs; who prepares himself in solitude for strange visions and voices; who purifies his soul more and more of the fairground dust and noise of this age; who not only dismisses everything Christian, but who overcomes it by something heretical and supra-Christian - for it was the Christian doctrine that was the heresy set in opposition to the Dionysian; who discovers the South in himself and spreads above himself the canopy of a clear, brilliant and mysterious Southern sky; who recaptures his soul's Southern vigour and latent power; who becomes, step by step, more comprehensive, more supra-national, more European, more Oriental and ultimately more Greek - for the Greeks were the first to consolidate and synthesize everything Oriental and, in so doing, inaugurated the European soul and discovered our 'new world' - he who lives in obedience to such imperative demands, who knows what he might encounter one day? Perhaps even - a new day!'

Speaking about the tension between the two poles of the highest external consciousness and the highest internal consciousness that highly evolved individuals like spiritual mendicants experience, Carl Jung concludes his last lecture of History of Modern Psychology, Vol. 1, by saying, 'Well, after having impressed you with this description of the powerful tension in the human mind, one could almost believe that I believe in a secret dualism, as if souls were stretched between two relentless poles that are never able to come together. This is the case, true, and yet it also is not; for where there is a separating force, a unifying one will arise...It is as if amid the polar tension a new consciousness suddenly emerges at the center from this animalistic I, which, as it were, unfolds in cycles, and develops into a different kind of consciousness. We call this characteristic function, which occurs naturally in any polar tension and seeks to unite the opposites of our nature, the transcendent function.' When the tensions between the poles have reached their highest levels and the spiritual fuel ganja is present, there is a spark between the tense poles that turns into lightening, and then an energy source the likes of which the world rarely gets to see...the coming to life of the spiritual mendicant, the appearance of god in human form...

The Tramps

Tramps are also known as hobos or vagabonds in different places. The tramp is essentially a person from the working class who has lost his work and is now forced to take up the wandering life in order to survive. He will quite gladly work for money. He has great pride and so will not beg for anything. That is one of the differences between a tramp and a beggar. Jack Kerouac writes in The Vanishing American Hobo, 'The hobo is born of pride, having nothing to do with a community but with himself and other hobos and maybe a dog. - Hobos by the railroad embankments cook at night huge tin cans of coffee. - Proud was the way the hobo walked through a town by the back doors where pies were cooling on window sills, the hobo was a mental leper, he didnt need to beg to eat, strong Western bony mothers knew his tinkling beard and tattered toga, 'come and get it!'...sometimes hobos were inconsiderate, but not always, but when they were, they no longer held their pride, they became bums...'

With the establishment of the caste-based system and the strengthening of the class system across the world, many people who belonged to the indigenous communities and aboriginal tribes found their lands and possessions taken away by the caste and class systems. Those who were able to, I would not use the word fortunate, found work in the lowest category of the castes and classes to work for their masters in the upper classes and castes. Those who were not able to find work had no money to feed themselves, let alone others, and so they were solitary beings without wives or children. The caste and class-based societies did not tolerate these persons who did not do anything that they perceived as productive work or furthering the wealth and prosperity of the upper classes and castes. The rules and laws laid down by the upper classes and castes stated that there was no place for the tramp in society. Law enforcement and citizens took it up as a major mission to identify tramps and remove them from sight. Tramps are put in destitute homes, lunatic asylums or prisons if they are caught by the police. Most often these places themselves are overcrowded, lack funds or are in such poor conditions that the tramp dreads being put in them, and his freedom curbed. Hence, tramps are forced to wander from place to place seeking work, food and shelter. 

Most tramps walk on foot, traveling many kilometers a day when they are able to, and resting when they can. Jack Kerouac writes, in The Vanishing American Hobo, 'In America, there has always been...a definite special idea of footwalking freedom going back to the days of Jim Bridger and Johnny Appleseed and carried on today by a vanishing group of hardy old timers still seen sometimes waiting in a desert highway for a short bus ride into town for panhandling (or work) and grub, or wandering the Eastern part of the country hitting Salvation Armies and moving on from town to town and state to state toward the eventual doom of big-city skid rows when their feet give out. - Nevertheless not long ago in California I did see (deep in the gorge by a railroad track outside San Jose buried in eucalyptus leaves and the blessed oblivion of vines) a bunch of cardboard and jerrybuilt huts at evening in front of one of which sat an aged man puffing his 15 cent Granger tobacco in his corncob pipe (Japan's mountains are full of free huts and old men who cackle over root brews waiting for Supreme Enlightenment which is only obtainable through occasional complete solitude.)' Some, who have a little money will take a local bus for as far as they can go. In the past, especially in the US, hitching a ride on a freight train was a classic mode of travel for the hobo. This mode of travel was made famous by such legendary part time hobos like Woodie Guthrie, Bob Dylan and Jack Kerouac. Over time the railway police became more ruthless, efficient and sophisticated, and this form of travel for the tramp is now not possible anymore.

Shelter is a big problem for the tramp. He often uses cardboard boxes, or pieces of old rags, plastic containers, newspapers, etc., to create a makeshift shelter in a place where he can remain undiscovered by the police for as long as possible. Some tramps sleep on unoccupied benches, cemeteries, public places like railway stations, bus stations, parking lots, or in parks. But this is increasingly difficult, especially with the increased sophistication of equipment in the hands of law enforcement. It has been made nearly impossible these days with the arrival of the ubiquitous closed circuit televisions (CCTVs) that have cameras installed in all possible places. To make things worse, almost every person of the class and caste system possesses a smartphone with a camera that he will not hesitate to use to capture the movement of a tramp and report it to the police as suspicious behavior. Kerouac says, in The Vanishing American Hobo, 'In America camping is considered a healthy sport for Boy Scouts but a crime for mature men who have made it their vocation. - Poverty is considered a virtue among the monks of civilized nations - in America you spend a night in the calaboose if you're caught short without your vagrancy charge (it was fifty cents last I heard of, Pard - what now?)' He further writes, 'There's something strange going on, you cant even be alone any more in the primitive wilderness ("primitive areas" so-called), there's always a helicopter comes and snoops around, you need camouflage. - Then they begin to demand that you observe strange aircraft for Civil Defense as though you knew the difference between regular strange aircraft and any kind of strange aircraft. - As far as I'm concerned the only thing to do is sit in a room and get drunk and give up your hoboing and your camping ambitions because there aint a sheriff or fire warden in any of the new fifty states who will let you cook a little meal over some burning sticks in the tule brake or the hidden valley or anyplace anymore because he has nothing to do but pick on what sees out there on the landscape moving independently of the gasoline power army police station. - I have no ax to grind. I'm simply going to another world.' George Orwell writes in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'I have slept on the Embankment and found that it corresponded to Paddy's description. It is however, much better than not sleeping at all, which is the alternative if you spend the night in the streets, elsewhere than on the Embankment. According to the law in London, you may sit down for the night, but the police must move you on if they see you asleep; the Embankment and one or two odd corners (there is one behind the Lyceum Theatre) are special exceptions. This law is evidently a piece of willful offensive-ness. Its object, so it is said, is to prevent people from dying of exposure; but clearly if a man has no home and is going to die of exposure, die he will, asleep or awake. In Paris there is no such law. There, people sleep by the score under the Seine bridges, and in doorways, and on benches in the squares, and round the ventilating shafts of the Metro, and even inside the Metro stations. It does no apparent harm. No one will spend a night in the street if he can possibly help it, and if he is going to stay out of doors he might as well be allowed to sleep, if he can.'

Writing about the quality of government provided shelters in his time, Orwell writes in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'At this moment at least fifteen thousand people in London are living in common lodging-houses. For an unattached man earning two pounds a week, or less, a lodging-house is a great convenience. He could hardly get a furnished room so cheaply, and the lodging-houses give him free firing, a bathroom of sorts, and plenty of society. As for the dirt, it is a minor evil. The really bad fault of lodging-houses is that they are places in which one pays to sleep, and in which sound sleep is impossible. All one gets for one's money is a bed measuring five feet six by two feet six, with a hard convex mattress and a pillow like a block of wood, covered by one cotton counterpane and two grey, stinking sheets. In winter there are blankets, but never enough. And this bed is in a room where there are never less than five, and sometimes fifty or sixty beds, a yard or two apart. Of course, no one can sleep soundly in such circumstances. The only other places where people are herded like this are barracks and hospitals. In the public wards of a hospital no one even hopes to sleep well. In barracks the soldiers are crowded, but they have good beds, and are healthy; in a common lodging-house nearly all the lodgers have chronic coughs, and a large number have bladder diseases which make them get up at all the hours of the night. The result is a perpetual racket, making sleep impossible. So far, as my observation goes, no one in a lodging-house sleeps more than five hours a night - a damnable swindle when one has paid sevenpence or more.' On the same subject, Jack Kerouac writes in The Vanishing American Hobo, '- Bum hotels are white and tiled and seem as though they were upright johns.'

In most countries, there are places that provide the tramp with a free meal, such as charitable institutions, casualty wards of government hospitals, and religious institutions like temples, churches, mosques and gurdwaras. Many of these places will not feed the same person for a long time. Also, these places are not open through the year, and sometimes stop functioning due to lack of funds. Many of these places also close down in different seasons, usually in the seasons when the tramp needs the food the most, such as harsh summers, rains, or winters. Besides this, even though these institutions provide meals, the tramp cannot stay around the place forever. When he moves out of the place, the police are there to harass him. This forces a tramp to move from one place seeking another, to find food, shelter and avoid action by law enforcement.

Writing about the oppression faced by tramps and hobos by law enforcement, Jack Kerouac writes in The Vanishing American Hobo, ''The American hobo has a hard time hoboing nowadays due to the increase in police surveillance of highways, railroad yards, sea shores, river bottoms, embankments and the thousand-and-one hiding holes of industrial night. - In California, the pack rat, the original old type who goes walking from town to town with supplies and bedding on his back, the "Homeless Brother," has practically vanished, along with the ancient gold-panning desert rat who used to walk with hope in his heart through struggling Western towns that are now so prosperous they dont want old bums any more. - "Man dont want no pack rats here even though they founded California" said an old man hiding with a can of beans and an Indian fire in a river bottom outside Riverside California in 1955. - Great sinister tax-paid police cars (1960 models with humorless searchlights) are likely to bear down at any moment on the hobo in his idealistic lope to freedom and the hills of holy silence and holy privacy. - There's nothing nobler than to put up with a few inconveniences like snakes and dust for the sake of absolute freedom.' He writes, 'Today the hobo has to hide, he has fewer places to hide, the cops are looking for him, 'calling all cars, calling all cars, hobos seen in the vicinity of Bird-in-Hand'. Writing about the harassment that he himself faced in his tramping days, Kerouac writes, 'The American Hobo is on the way out as long as sheriffs operate with as Louis-Ferdinand Celine said, "One line of crime and nine of boredom," because having nothing to do in the middle of the night with everybody gone to sleep they pick on the first human being they see walking. - They pick on lovers on the beach even. They just dont know what to do with themselves in those five-thousand dollar police cars with the two-way Dick Tracy radios except pick on anything that moves in the night and in the daytime on anything that seems to be moving independently of gasoline, power, Army or police - I myself was a hobo but I had to give it up around 1956 because of increasing television stories about the abominableness of strangers with packs passing through by themselves independently - I was surrounded by three squad cars in Tucson Avenue at 2 AM as I was walking pack-on-back for a night's sweet sleep in the red moon desert: "Where you goin'?" "Sleep." "Sleep where?" "On the sand." "Why?" "Got my sleeping bag." "Why?" "Studyin' the great outdoors." "Who are you? Let's see your identification." "I just spent a summer with the Forest Service." "Did you get paid?" "Yeah." "Then why dont you go to a hotel?" "I like it better outdoors and it's free." "Why?" "Because I'm studying hobo." "What's so good about that?" They wanted an 'explanation' for my hoboing and came close to hauling me in but I was sincere with them and they ended up scratching their heads and saying "Go ahead if that's what you want." - They didnt offer me a ride four miles out to the desert.'

I have personally experienced the attention of law enforcement primarily due to my appearance. On a couple of occasions, even though I was well-dressed (at least, that is what I would like to think), I was stopped by policemen patrolling the area as I was walking in the vicinity of my house. On both these occasions, I was smoking a beedi. The policemen wanted to know what I was smoking. When I said beedi, they told me that smoking in public places is against the law. I explained to them on both occasions that the law against smoking in public places does not apply to smoking on a street which is an open space. I then gave examples of public places, and the sections of the law that defined these rules. The policemen did not seem to accept what I said and kept insisting that the street is a public place. I walked away on both these occasions, and despite their arguments, they did not stop me further. On one occasion, a friend and I were sitting outside the gate of another friend's house, waiting for him. We were about 18 or 19 years old then, sporting long hair and torn jeans as a part of our youth statement. A person, who we later found out was a Circle Inspector, came running out of his mansion on the opposite side of the street, and started yelling at us, 'You vagabonds! What do you think you are doing here?" I explained to him that we were waiting for our friend. He went back into his house, angrily muttering something like he did not want to see us there again. On another occasion, my friends and I were sitting outside a closed shop opposite his house in the evening, when suddenly a police inspector came riding on his bike, pulled over and started wielding his lathi on us. When we questioned him about his behavior, he got onto his motorbike and rode away without answering us. Once when I was returning after a trip, wearing shorts and slippers, with a backpack on, I was stopped by policemen who wanted to see my identification. It was about 6.30 in the morning. Maybe they thought I was a thief decamping after looting some house. One of my friends was walking home one night after his motorbike ran out of fuel. He parked the bike in a friend's place, and as he was walking his slippers broke, so he continued home on bare feet. He was picked up by the police and taken to the station for questioning before he was released. All these are instances of stereotyping by law enforcement based on a person's appearance. They will target those who appear to be the poorest sections of society, whereas the big criminals go about in their big cars, wearing suits and ties and smoking cigars. These criminals will even get great respect in society for their achievements.

There are many hobos who lived the hobo life only temporarily. They eventually went on to fame and fortune, though I do not think that changed their hobo nature. Examples are Bob Dylan, Neil Young, Bob Marley, Henry Thoreau, Jack Kerouac, George Orwell, Jimi Hendrix, John Lennon, Hunter Thompson, JJ Cale, etc. Kerouac says, in The Lonesome Traveler 'I myself was a hobo but only of sorts, as you see, because I knew someday my literary efforts would be rewarded by social protection - I was not a real hobo with no hope ever except that secret eternal hope you get sleeping in empty boxcars flying up the Salinas Valley in hot January sunshine full of Golden Eternity toward San Jose where mean-looking old bo's 'll look at you from surly lips and offer you something to eat ad a drink too - down by the tracks in the Guadaloupe Creekbottom.'  Kerouac writes in The Vanishing American Hobo, 'Beethoven was a hobo who knelt and listened to the light, a deaf hobo who could not hear other hobo complaints. - Einstein the hobo with his ratty turtle-neck sweater made of lamb...Jesus was a strange hobo who walked on water. - Buddha was also a hobo who paid no attention to the other hobo. - Chief Rain-In-The-Face, weirder even. - ' Unfortunately, many hobos like Kerouac, Thoreau, Marley, Lennon and Hendrix, why Jesus himself, did not live long enough to enjoy their future social protection, because I believe that they had held up the mirror to society's ugly face so clearly that society figured out ways to eliminate them before they enjoyed the rewards for their efforts at social transformation. Only a few smart ones, like Bob Dylan, Willie Nelson, Mick Jagger and Neil Young figured out how to avoid the traps that society had laid out for these truth-tellers and prophets.

There was a time when tramps were looked at with admiration, like the spiritual mendicants. They were offered food, clothing, shelter and work by people in the villages and towns that they traveled through. Over time, tramps started getting maligned much like the spiritual mendicants. Stories started becoming popular about tramps who ate children, robbed, murdered and raped people, who were spies for the enemy, and so on...With this the tramp started finding himself increasingly targeted against. Jack Kerouac writes in The Vanishing American Hobo, 'In Brueghel's time children danced around the hobo, he wore huge and raggy clothes and always looked straight ahead indifferent to the children, and the families didnt mind the children playing with the hobo, it was a natural thing.- But today mothers hold tight their children when the hobo passes through the town because of what the newspapers made the hobo to be - the rapist, the strangler, child-eater. - Stay away from strangers, they'll give you poison candy. Though the Brueghel hobo and the hobo today are the same, the children are different. - Where is even the Chaplinesque hobo? The old Divine Comedy hobo? The hobo in Virgil, he leadeth. - The hobo enters the child's world (like in the famous painting by Brueghel of a huge hobo solemnly passing through the washtub village being barked at and laughed at by children, St. Pied Piper) but today it's an adult world, it's not a child's world - Today the hobo's made to slink - everybody's watching the cop heroes on TV.' George Orwell, who like Jack Kerouac had spent a part of his life as a tramp and so also knew what he was talking about, wrote on the same subject in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'I want to set down some general thoughts about tramps. When one comes to think of it, tramps are a queer product and worth thinking over. It is queer that a tribe of men, tens of thousands in number, should be marching up and down England like so many Wandering Jews. But though the case obviously wants considering, one cannot even start to consider it until one has got rid of certain prejudices. These prejudices are rooted in the idea that every tramp, ipso facto, is a blackguard. In childhood we have been taught that tramps are blackguards, and consequently there exists in our minds a sort of ideal or typical tramp - a repulsive, dangerous creature, who would rather die than work or wash, and wants nothing but to beg, drink, and rob hen-houses. This tramp-monster is no truer to life than the sinister Chinaman of the magazine stories, but he is very hard to get rid of. The very word 'tramp' evokes his image. And the belief in him obscures the real questions of vagrancy.' Orwell writes further, 'As a matter of fact, very little of the tramp-monster will survive inquiry. Take the generally accepted idea that tramps are dangerous characters. Quite apart from experience, one can say a priori that very few tramps are dangerous, because if they were dangerous they would be treated accordingly. A casual ward will often admit a hundred tramps in one night, and they are handled by a staff of at most three porters. A hundred ruffians could not be controlled by three unarmed men. Indeed, when one sees how tramps let themselves be bullied by the workhouse officials, it is quite obvious that they are the most docile, broken-spirited creatures imaginable. Or take the idea that all tramps are drunkards - an idea ridiculous on the face of it. No doubt many tramps would drink if they got the chance, but in the nature of things they cannot get the chance. At this moment a pale watery stuff called beer is sevenpence a pint in England. To be drunk on it would cost at least half a crown, and a man who can command half a crown at all often is not a tramp. The idea that tramps are impudent social parasites ('sturdy beggars') is not absolutely unfounded, but it is only true in a few per cent of the cases. Deliberate, cynical parasitism, such as the one reads of in Jack London's books on American tramping, is not in the English character. The English are a conscience-stricken race, with a strong sense of the sinfulness of poverty. One cannot imagine the average Englishman deliberately turning parasite, and this national character does not necessarily change because a man is thrown out of work. Indeed, if one remembers that a tramp is only an Englishman out of work, forced by law to live as a vagabond, then the tramp-monster vanishes. I am not saying, of course, that most tramps are ideal characters; I am only saying that they are ordinary human beings, and that if they are worse than other people it is the result and not the cause of their way of life.'

Tramps, as I said earlier, probably want nothing more than to find work, so that they can get food, clothing and shelter, and maybe eventually, even have a family. Speaking about this, George Orwell writes in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'It follows that the 'Serve them damn well right' attitude that is normally taken towards tramps is no fairer than it would be towards cripples or invalids. When one has realized that, one begins to put oneself in a tramp's place and understand what his life is like. It is an extraordinarily futile, acutely unpleasant life. I have described the casual ward - the routine of a tramp's day - but there are three especial evils that need insisting upon. The first is hunger, which is the almost general fate of tramps. The casual ward gives them a ration which is probably not even meant to be sufficient, and anything beyond this must be got by begging - that is, by breaking the law. The result is that nearly every tramp is rotted by malnutrition; for proof of which one need only look at the men lining up outside any casual ward. The second great evil of a tramp's life - it seems much smaller at first sight, but it is a good second - is that he is entirely cut off from contact with women. This point needs elaborating. Tramps are cut off from women, in the first place, because there are very few women at their level of society. One might imagine that among destitute people the sexes would be as equally balanced as elsewhere. But it is not so; in fact, one can almost say that below a certain level society is entirely male. The following figures, published by the L.C.C. from a night census taken on February 13th, 1931, will show the relative numbers of destitute men and women: Spending the night in the streets, 60 men, 18 women. In shelters and homes not licensed as common lodging-houses, 1,057 men. 137 women. In the crypt of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields Church, 88 men, 12 women. In L.C.C. casual wards and hostels, 674 men, 15 women.'

Writing about the predominance of males among tramps, George Orwell writes in Down and Out in London and Paris, that women were generally able to attach themselves to a male and settle down, thus reflecting the much lower numbers of women among tramps as compared to men. Writing further about evil of lack of the companionship of a woman for a tramp, Orwell writes  in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'It will be seen from these figures that at the charity level men outnumber women by something like ten to one. The cause is presumably that unemployment affects women less than men; also that any presentable woman can, in the last resort, attach herself to some man. The result, for a tramp, is that he is condemned to perpetual celibacy. For of course it goes without saying that if a tramp finds no women at his own level, those above - even a very little above - are as far out of his reach as the moon. The reasons are not worth discussing, but there is no doubt that women never, or hardly ever, condescend to men who are much poorer than themselves. A tramp, therefore, is a celibate from the moment he takes to the road. He is absolutely without hope of getting a wife, a mistress, or any kind of woman except - very rarely, when he can raise a few shillings - a prostitute. It is obvious what the results of this must be: homosexuality, for instance, and occasional rape cases. But deeper than these there is the degradation worked in a man who knows that he is not even considered fit for marriage. The sexual impulse, not to put it any higher, is a fundamental impulse, and starvation of it can be almost as demoralizing as physical hunger. The evil of poverty is not so much that it makes a man suffer as that it rots him physically and spiritually. And there can be no doubt that sexual starvation contributes to this rotting process. Cut off from the whole race of women, a tramp feels himself degraded to the rank of a cripple or a lunatic. No humiliation could do more damage to a man's self-respect.'

Tramps are caught between the proverbial devil and the deep blue sea. On the one hand is a cold-hearted ruthless society that does not want to see them. On the other hand is an increasingly greedy society that looks to do more work with less humans, using machines to perform the work that used to be done by tens or maybe even hundreds of men, in order for the upper classes and castes to get richer. George Orwell writes in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'To take a fundamental question about vagrancy: Why do tramps exist at all? It is a curious thing, but very few people know what makes a tramp take to the road. And, because of the belief in the tramp-monster, the most fantastic reasons are suggested. It is said, for instance, that tramps tramp to avoid work, to beg more easily, to seek opportunities for crime, even - least probable of reasons - because they like tramping. I have even read in a book on criminology that the tramp is an atavism, a throw-back to the nomadic stage of humanity. And meanwhile the quite obvious cause of vagrancy is staring one in the face. Of course a tramp is not a nomadic atavism - one might as well say that a commercial traveler is an atavism. A tramp tramps, not because he likes it, but for the same reason as a car keeps to the left; because there happens to be a law compelling him to do so. A destitute man, if he is not supported by the parish, can only get relief at the casual wards, and as each casual ward will only admit him for one night, he is automatically kept moving. He is a vagrant because, in the state of the law, it is that or starve. But people have been brought up to believe in the tramp-monster, and so they prefer to think that there must be some more or less villainous motive for tramping.'

The tramp wants nothing more than to work, but a ruthless society that has taken away his opportunity to work, now labels him as lazy, idle, indolent and a burden on society. Orwell says in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'The other great evil of a tramp's life is enforced idleness. By our vagrancy laws things are so arranged that when he is not walking the road he is sitting in a cell; or, in the intervals, lying on the ground waiting for the casual ward to open. It is obvious that this is a dismal, demoralizing way of life, especially for an uneducated man. Besides these one could enumerate scores of minor evils - to name only one, discomfort, which is inseparable from life on the road; it is worth remembering that the average tramp has no clothes but what he stands up in, wears boots that are ill-fitting, and does not sit in a chair for months together. But the important point is that a tramp's sufferings are entirely useless. He lives a fantastically disagreeable life, and lives it to no purpose whatever. One could not, in fact, invent a more futile routine that walking from prison to prison, spending perhaps eighteen hours a day in a cell and on the road. There must be at least several tens of thousands of tramps in England. Each day they expend innumerable foot-pounds of energy - enough to plough thousands of acres, build miles of roads, put up dozens of houses - in mere, useless walking. Each day they waste between them possibly ten years of time in staring at cell walls. They cost the country at least a pound a week a man, and give nothing in return for it. They go round and round, on an endless boring game of general post, which is of no use, and is not even meant to be of any use to any person whatever. The law keeps this process going, and we have got so accustomed to it that we are not surprised. But it is very silly.'

Writing about the problem of shelter and lack of work for the tramp, Orwell offers solutions in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'Granting the futility of a tramp's life, the question is whether anything could be done to improve it. Obviously it would be possible, for instance, to make the casual wards a little more habitable, and this is actually being done in some cases. During the last year some of the casual wards have been improved - beyond recognition, if the accounts are true - and there is talk of doing the same to all of them. But this does not go to the heart of the problem. The problem is how to turn the tramp from a bored, half alive vagrant into a self-respecting human being. A mere increase of comfort cannot do this. Even if the casual wards become positively luxurious (they never will) a tramp's life would still be wasted. He would still be a pauper, cut off from marriage and home life, and a dead loss to the community. What is needed is to depauperize him, and this can only be done by finding him work - not work for the sake of working, but work of which he can enjoy the benefit. At present, in the great majority of casual wards, tramps do no work whatever. At one time they were made to break stones for their food, but this was stopped when they had broken enough stone for years ahead and put stone-breakers out of work. Nowadays they are kept idle, because there is seemingly nothing for them to do. Yet there is a fairly obvious way of making them useful, namely this: Each workhouse could run a small farm, or at least a kitchen garden, and every able-bodied tramp who presented himself could be made to do a sound day's work. The produce of the farm or garden could be used for feeding the tramps, and at the worst it could be better than the filthy diet of bread and margarine and tea. Of course, the casual wards could never be quite self-supporting, but they could go a long way towards it, and the rates would probably benefit in the long run. It must be remembered that under the present system tramps are as dead a loss to the country as they could possibly be, for they do not only do no work, bu they live on a diet that is bound to undermine their health; the system, therefore, loses lives as well as money. A scheme which fed them decently, and made them produce at least a part of their own food, would be worth trying.' Orwell writes, 'It may be objected that a farm or even a garden could not be run with casual labour. But there is no real reason why tramps should only stay a day at each casual ward; they might stay for a month or even a year, if there were work for them to do. The constant circulation of tramps is something quite artificial. At present a tramp is an expense to the rates, and the object of each workhouse is therefore to push him on to the next; hence the rule that he can stay only one night. If he returns within a month he is penalized by being confined for a week, and, as this is much the same as being in prison, naturally he keeps moving. But if he represented labour to the workhouse, and the workhouse represented sound food to him, it would be another matter. The workhouses would develop into partially self-supporting institutions, and the tramps, settling down here or there according as they were needed, would cease to be tramps. They would be doing something comparatively useful, getting decent food, and living a settled life. By degrees, if the scheme worked well, they might even cease to be regarded as paupers, and be able to marry and take a respectable place in society. This is only a rough idea, and there are some obvious objections to it. Nevertheless, it does suggest a way of improving the status of tramps without putting new burdens on the rates. And the solution must, in any case, be something of this kind. For the question is, what to do with men who are underfed and idle; and the answer - to make them grow their own food - imposes itself automatically.'

Offering suggestions on improving shelters for tramps, Orwell writes, 'Here legislation could accomplish something. At present there is all manner of legislation by the L.C.C. about lodging-houses, but it is not done in the interests of the lodgers. The L.C.C. only exert themselves to forbid drinking, gambling, fighting, etc. etc. There is no law to say that the beds in a lodging-house must be comfortable. This would be quite an easy thing to enforce - much easier, for instance, than restrictions upon gambling. The lodging-house keepers should be compelled to provide adequate bedclothes and better mattresses, and above all to divide their dormitories into cubicles. It does not matter how small a cubicle is, the important thing is that a man should be alone when he sleeps. These few changes, strictly enforced, would make an enormous difference. It is not impossible to make a lodging-house reasonably comfortable at the usual rates of payment. In the Croydon municipal lodging-house, where the charge is only ninepence, there are cubicles, good beds, chairs (a very rare luxury in lodging-houses), and a kitchen above ground instead of in a cellar. There is no reason why every ninepenny lodging-house should not come up to this standard. Of course, the owners of the lodging-houses would be opposed en bloc to any improvement, for their present business is an immensely profitable one. The average house takes five or ten pounds a night, with no bad debts (credit being strictly forbidden), and except for rent the expenses are small. Any improvement would mean less crowding, and hence less profit. Still, the excellent municipal lodging-house at Croydon shows how well one can be served for ninepence. A few well-directed laws could make these conditions general. If the authorities are going to concern themselves with lodging-houses at all, they ought to start by making them more comfortable, not by silly restrictions that would never be tolerated in a hotel.'

Cannabis prohibition has affected tramps in some ways that are similar to the effect that it has had on spiritual mendicants. Cannabis - in cannabis consuming societies - enabled tramps to face adverse living conditions, ward off diseases, and manage their hunger over long periods of time, enabling them to stay healthy and move around or do work, if they were able to find it. The prohibition of cannabis meant that tramps had to depend on cheap and spurious alcohol and cheap tobacco if they are able to get their hands on it. In most situations, they end up consuming dangerous toxic substances that put them in a stupor and eventually kill them. If cannabis was legalized completely, for all purposes, many of the tramps today could find employment working for cannabis cultivators, processors, and other allied cannabis industries that would be part of the small-scale industry revolution that cannabis legalization will bring. They would be able to earn money, and possibly eventually, even afford a home and a place where they can grow their own cannabis to use for themselves, or sell to others, or create products from cannabis as entrepreneurs. All this would be sustainable living through sustainable occupations that not only boost the economy, but also move society and the planet away from its deterioration. In many places where cannabis has been legalized, revenue earned from it is utilized to improve education, public infrastructure and victims of racial discrimination. If all countries legalized cannabis for all purposes, and the state used some part of the revenue earned from cannabis to make the quality of life for the tramp and destitute better by constructing and maintaining decent quality shelter homes, this would go a long way in easing some of their suffering. But the upper classes and upper castes who form the minority in the world of humans do not have the consideration and empathy for this section of society. They probably are not even aware of their existence. For the upper classes and castes, the single minded focus is getting rich at any, or all, costs, through fair means or foul, even if it destroys the very planet that they live off.

George Orwell concludes his essay Down and Out in London and Paris, saying, 'My story ends here. It is a fairly trivial story, and I can only hope that it has been interesting in the same way that a travel diary is interesting. I can at least say, here is the world that awaits you if you are ever penniless. Some days I want to explore that world more thoroughly. I should like to know people like Mario and Paddy and Bill the moocher, not from casual encounters, but intimately; I should like to understand what really goes on in the souls of the plongeurs and tramps and Embankment sleepers. At present I do not feel that I have seen more than the fringe of poverty. Still I can point to one or two things I have definitely learned by being hard up. I shall never again think that all tramps are drunken scoundrels, nor expect a beggar to be grateful when I give him a penny, nor be surprised if men out of work lack energy, nor subscribe to the Salvation Army, nor pawn my clothes, nor refuse a handbill, nor enjoy a meal at a smart restaurant. That is a beginning. '

Jack Kerouac concludes his essay on The Vanishing American Hobo, saying, 'The hobos of America who can still travel in a healthy way are still in good shape, they can go hide in cemeteries and drink wine under cemetery groves of trees and micturate and sleep on cardboards and smash bottles on tombstones and not care and not be scared of the dead but serious and humorous in the cop-avoiding night and even amused and leave litters of their picnic between the grizzled slaps of Imagined Death, cussing what they think are real days, but Oh the poor bum of the skid row! There he sleeps in the doorway, back to wall, head down, with his right hand palm-up as if to receive from the night, the other hand hanging, strong, firm, like Joe Louis hands, pathetic, made tragic by unavoidable circumstance - the hand like a beggar's upheld with the fingers forming a suggestion of what he deserves and desires to receive, shaping the alms, thumb almost touching finger tips, as though on the tip of the tongue he's about to say in sleep and with that gesture what he couldnt say awake: "Why have you taken this away from me, that I cant draw my breath in the peace and sweetness of my own bed but here in these dull and nameless rags on this humbling stoop I have to sit waiting for the wheels of the city to roll," and further, "I dont want to show my hand but in sleep I'm helpless to straighten it, yet take this opportunity and see my plea, I'm alone, I'm sick, I'm dying - see my hand uptipped, learn the secret of my human heart, give me the thing, give me your hand, take me to the emerald mountains beyond the city, take me to the safe place, be kind, be nice, smile - I'm too tired now of everything else, I've had enough, I give up, I quit, I want to go home, take me home O brother in the night - take me home, lock me in safe, take me to where all is peace and amity, to the family of life, my mother, my father, my sister, my wife and you my brother and you my friend - but no hope, no hope, no hope, I wake up and I'd give a million dollars to be in my own bed - O Lord save me - " In evil roads behind gas tanks where murderous dogs snarl from behind wire fences cruisers suddenly leap out like getaway cars but from a crime more secret, more baneful than words can tell...The woods are full of wardens.'  

The Beggars

The beggars, or bums as they are also called, form the third significant section of the outcasts, in addition to spiritual mendicants and tramps. The primary difference between beggars and other outcasts is that their main pursuit is the begging for money. Very few beggars beg for food, it is money that they focus on. Begging is an occupation that they pursue diligently. Unlike tramps, who have great pride, many beggars will refuse work, as they prefer to beg for money. Beggars generally lack the consideration for others, unlike tramps, and would quite easily steal from or hurt another beggar or any other individual if the opportunity presented itself. It is said that some beggars have stashed away large sums of money earned from their begging, but continue to beg, as it is an occupation that they do not desire to give up. This is more likely the exception rather than the rule, with most beggars living a hand-to-mouth existence. It is also said that many beggars are the foot soldiers in an elaborate criminal network involving human trafficking, selling of drugs, extortion, etc. There may be some truth in this. Many beggars are elderly people who have been sent out of their homes during the day to earn some extra money while the rest of the household engages in work as a part of the working class.

Beggars generally do not wander from place to place and avoid people like tramps and spiritual mendicants do. On the contrary, they more or less live in a certain town or city close to their places of work. Their places of work are those where large numbers of people congregate or pass through. They spend the day standing in street corners, tourist spots, or at traffic signals and ply each passerby with requests for money. In this sense, they are as hardworking as any other member of the working class, spending long hours exposed to sun, rain and the cold to earn their living.

Unlike the tramp and spiritual mendicant who have great pride and do not beg, the beggar thinks that society deserves to support him, given that it is society that reduced him to this state in the first place. George Orwell writes about this in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'With all this, he had neither fear, nor regret, nor shame, nor self-pity. He had faced his position, and made a philosophy for himself. Being a beggar, he said, was not his fault, and he refused either to have any compunction about it or to let it trouble him. He was the enemy of society, and quite ready to take to crime if he saw an opportunity. He refused on principle to be thrifty. In the summer he saved nothing, spending his surplus earnings on drink, as he did not care about women. If he was penniless when winter came on, then society must look after him. He was ready to extract every penny he could from charity, provided that he was not expected to say thank you for it. He avoided religious charities, however, for he said it stuck in his throat to sing hymns for buns. He had various other points of honour; for instance, it was his boast that never in his life, even when starving, had he picked up a cigarette end. He considered himself in a class above the ordinary run of beggars, who, he said, were an abject lot, without even the decency to be ungrateful.' Generally, beggars are not treated with as much disdain as tramps by the police as they can, in some cases, share a part of their earnings with members of the police, especially the more successful beggars. Law enforcement then turns a blind eye to the beggar. Tramps and spiritual mendicants do not have any money with them generally. If they did, they would prefer to use it for food, so they would move away from a place if a policeman asked them to.

Many beggars flock the same places as tramps for food - charitable institutions, places of worship, etc. While tramps move away generally after a meal, the beggar usually remains around begging from people who visit these places. Beggars and tramps are provided food at cheap rates in certain establishments, if they are lucky. In some places, coupons are provided to beggars and tramps that enable them to get some basic food like bread and coffee. In most of these places, the quality of food is bad, and any many cases the staff are rude or dishonest. Kerouac writes, in The Vanishing American Hobo, 'Fred Bunz is the great Howard Johnson's of the bums - it is located on 277 Bowery in New York. They write the menu in soap on the windows. - You see the bums reluctantly paying fifteen cents for pig brains, twenty-five cents for goulash, and shuffling out in thin cotton shirts in the cold November might to go and make the lunar Bowery with a smask of broken bottle in the alley where they stand against a wall like naughty boys. - Some of them wear adventurous rainy hats picked up by the track in Hugo Colorado or blasted shoes kicked off by Indians in the dumps of Juarez, or coats from the lugubrious salon of the seal and fish.' 

Different places have different laws when it comes to tramps and beggars. Most places do not want them around. This is after the upper classes and castes have taken away everything that a person has. Now they do not want to see the victim of the crime anymore. Kerouac writes in The Vanishing American Hobo, 'In Holland they dont allow bums, the same maybe in Copenhagen. But in Paris you can be a bum - in Paris bums are treated with great respect and are rarely refused a few francs. - There are various kinds of classes of bums in Paris, the high-class bum has a dog and a baby carriage in which he keeps all his belongings, and that usually consists of old France 'Soirs', rags, tin cans, empty bottles, broken dolls. - This bum sometimes has a mistress who follows him and his dog and carriage around. - The lower bums dont own a thing, they just sit on the banks of the Seine pickng their nose at the Eiffel Tower. The bums in England have an English accent, and it makes them seem strange - they don't understand bums in Germany - America is the motherland of bumdom.' 

On the contempt that society has for beggars, Orwell writes in Down and Out in London and Paris, 'It is worth saying something about the social position of beggars, for when one has consorted with them, and found that they are ordinary human beings, one cannot help being struck by the curious attitude that society takes towards them. People seem to feel that there is some essential difference between beggars and ordinary 'working' men. They are a race apart - outcasts, like criminals and prostitutes. Working men 'work', beggars do not 'work'; they are parasites, worthless in their very nature. It is taken for granted that a beggar does not 'earn' his living, as a bricklayer or a literary critic 'earns' his. He is a mere social excrescence, tolerated because we live in a humane age, but essentially despicable. Yet if one looks closely one sees that there is no essential difference between a beggar's livelihood and that of numberless respectable people. Beggars do not work, it is said; but, then, what is work? A navvy works by swinging a pick. An accountant works by adding up figures. A beggar works by standing out of doors in all weathers and getting varicose veins, chronic bronchitis, etc. It is a trade like any other; quite useless, of course - but, then, many reputable trades are quite useless. And as a social type a beggar compares well with scores of others. He is honest compared with the sellers of most patent medicines, high-minded when compared with a Sunday newspaper proprietor, amiable compared with a hire-purchase tout - in short, a parasite, but a fairly harmless parasite. He seldom extracts more than a bare living from the community, and, what should justify him according to our ethical ideas, he pays for it over and over in suffering. I do not think there is anything about a beggar that sets him in a different class from other people, or gives most modern men the right to despise him.'

In answer to the question as to why the beggar is despised by society, Orwell says that the primary reason is that the beggar is a businessman who rarely succeeds in his profession. It is his pitiable returns for his efforts, and his perpetual lack of money that draws contempt from a society that greatly respects a person if he has a pile of money, even if the money was secured by robbing, raping and murdering hundreds of elderly persons, women and children. Orwell says, 'Then the question arises, Why are beggars despised - for they are despised, universally. I believe that it is for the simple reason that they fail to earn a decent living. In practice nobody cares whether work is useful or useless, productive or parasitic; the sole thing demanded is that it shall be profitable. In all the modern talk about energy, efficiency, social service and the rest of it, what meaning is there except 'Get money, get it legally, and get a lot of it'? Money has become the grand test of virtue. By this test beggars fail, and for this they are despised. If one could earn even ten pounds a week at begging, it would become a respectable profession immediately. A beggar, looked at realistically, is simply a businessman, getting his living, like other businessmen, in the way that comes to hand. He has not, more than most modern people, sold his honour, he has merely made the mistake of choosing a trade at which it is impossible to get rich.'

Many beggars have been reduced to their current plight through addiction to the drugs that replaced cannabis - alcohol, opium, methamphetamine and prescription pharmaceutical drugs. They possibly can secure food, clothing, work and shelter, but it is to fuel these addictions that they resort to begging. In this sense, the beggars are probably no different to the upper classes and castes who focus on earning large amounts of money to fuel their addictions for drugs, sex and luxuries, despite having enough food, clothing and shelter to get by quite comfortably. When beggars addicted to alcohol and other drugs cannot afford these, they resort to dangerous alternatives that very often kill them. Sniffing glue and paint thinners, inhaling petrol, and so on, become means of getting high when there is no other alternative. Jack Kerouac writes in The Vanishing American Hobo, 'Lots of Bowery bums are Scandinavians, lots of them bleed easily because they drink too much. - When winter comes bums drink a drink called smoke, it consists of wood alcohol and a drop of iodine and a scab of lemon, this they gulp down and wham! they hibernate all winter so as not to catch cold, because they dont live anywhere, and it gets very cold outside in the city in winter. - Sometimes hobos sleep arm-in-arm to keep warm, right on the sidewalk. Bowery Mission veterans say that the beer-drinking bums are the most belligerent of the lot...' Most western countries have seen a recent spiral in the number of homeless and destitute living on the streets. Many of these are addicted to alcohol. An increasing number of persons are opioid, prescription medicine, and methamphetamine addicts who have lost everything, including their families. Many governments and voluntary organizations provide doses of opioids to addicts as a humanitarian gesture to keep the addicts from dying. This is usually done in safe consumption centers, where fresh syringes and needles are provided to the addict, and doses are administered under medical supervision. 

Cannabis legalization in all forms will benefit both the upper class and caste beggars and the outcast beggars in the same way. It will enable them to replace their addictions - for money, for drugs, etc., - with cannabis. Consuming cannabis will lead these people to a more contented life, where once their urges to satisfy their addictions are satiated, they will become considerate and start to see the other beings that exist around them in this wonderful, mystical, miraculous world that we live in. It will enable them to enjoy the pleasure of living in paradise, and enable them to raise themselves from the hellhole that they themselves have created and find themselves in. Smoking some ganja will give the beggar more creative ideas of doing business and becoming successful. Cannabis itself, as a means of sustainable livelihood, will present numerous opportunities for the beggar to do useful work, be it through cultivation, sale, processing or finding employment in the numerous small-scale sustainable cannabis-related industries that can emerge with cannabis legalization. It will increase his overall health, and his ability to bear his circumstances. It will relieve depression and increase self esteem.

In Conclusion

It is very difficult to estimate the number of people in India today who fall in the category of outcasts - the spiritual mendicants, tramps and beggars. This is because any census or economic survey targets only households. Those without homes, without identity and without work according to the narrow definition of the class and caste system do not figure in these exercises that count people in India. They are invisible and non-existent for all practical purposes. The fact that many of them do not even remain in one place for long makes it all the more difficult to enumerate them. The authorities do not even make an attempt to count the people in this segment because it is a direct indicator of the failure of the system and society to take care of those who need to be supported the most. I think, today, with the prohibition of cannabis, and the contempt and hostility towards the spiritual mendicant that this class probably numbers in the hundreds. Almost all these spiritual mendicants will be hidden from society, living in caves and other remote places - like snow leopards that are seldom seen and very difficult to enumerate. The Naga sadhus that descend on the Ganga sometimes are probably a part of this class, though I am not sure how many of them remain today, and are genuine mendicants that follow the spiritual path. The tramps and beggars probably make up about 7% to 14% of the population in India today, i.e. between 100-200 million. This number will surely have seen a spike during the fake pandemic Covid created by the upper classes and castes to consolidate their wealth, resulting in the pushing of hundreds of millions below the poverty line. Many of the affected had homes and families. I am sure that a significant number of these people were rendered homeless and family-less and joined the ranks of the tramps and the beggars as a result of the fake pandemic. 

In Cannabis, Classes and Castes, I had estimated the outcasts to be about 20-40% of India's population of 1.4 billion, at about 300-500 million people. That number contains those that are considered religious outcasts, those outside the caste-based system of religion. This includes Muslims, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, Christians, atheists, etc. Many of these people are in the lower class at least, if not in the middle or higher classes. They cannot be treated as outcasts in the context of this article. They have jobs, income, family, shelter, etc., unlike the spiritual mendicants, tramps and beggars. So, if you remove these relatively well-to-do religious outcasts from the equation, the pure outcasts - those outside both the class and the caste orders because they are too poor to have any income, shelter, family, jobs (according to the definition of the upper classes and castes, that is) - will number between 100 to 200 million is my estimate. Most of these 100-200 million will benefit from the legalization of ganja, since it is likely that 80-90% of this class will consume ganja for medicine, intoxicant and entheogen. 

A significant number out of the tramps and beggars may gain some form of sustainable livelihood linked to cannabis, thus enabling them to rise out of the poverty that they have been forced into by society, and from which they very much desire to escape. For the spiritual mendicants, it will enable them to grow their own ganja if they wish to. In times of shortage, they could get some ganja as alms from the rest of society. It is most likely that those who are large-hearted enough to give them the alms will be from the other outcasts who have managed to gain sustainable livelihood through cannabis - the former tramps and beggars. The rest of society will be most likely engrossed in satisfying their own needs and pleasures through ganja, charas and bhang, and looking for ways to monetize it to make them rich further. 

The opening of retail outlets that cater to very poorest - much like ration shops for those below the poverty level - will enable the poorest sections of society to buy their ganja, in case they cannot grow it and nobody else shares their stock with them. The price of ganja in these places needs to be at the lowest possible price - something like the Rs 1000 per kg that I have proposed in a couple of other places. That greatly increases the affordability for the outcasts, and the poorest persons from the working and labouring classes. I estimated that there may be 75 million adult males in the working and labouring classes who are likely to consume ganja in habitual moderate quantities in my article Cannabis, Classes and Castes. Add to that the 80-90 million from the outcasts who are likely to smoke ganja. That makes a total number of about 155-165 million Indians from the poorest sections of society who can benefit from ganja priced at Rs. 1000 a kilogram in ration shops and other retail outlets set up specifically for the people who need it the most. This needs to be good quality ganja, obviously. The best quality of ganja should be made available through these sources. Those with money can anyway buy high quality ganja at high prices, besides charas, make bhang, alcohol, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, synthetic pharmaceutical drugs, etc., etc. For this to become a reality, ganja must be cultivated on large scales across the country. Only if there is adequate good quality ganja will it reach the very poor at the lowest prices. Otherwise, the upper classes and castes will suck it all up. With cannabis prohibition, there is such an insatiable hunger for cannabis in Indian society that the rich are as starved of it as the poor. Therefore, as supplies start to increase, the rich will appropriate most of it with their money. We need to flood the market with the ganja crop for it to benefit the outcasts. It is not something impossible, because until the 19th century that was how the situation was. Ganja was one of India's major agricultural crops, with enough to meet the needs of India's population, including its poorest sections - the outcasts - and then to still have enough to export to Europe and other nations around the world. That was when India was rich. There were probably hardly any tramps or beggars then, but probably many spiritual mendicants...

The story will be the same all over the world as it is in India. The outcasts will not figure in any country's list of population numbers, and all countries will suppress this information as it shows the failure of the state, the number of victims, and the true extent of the crime that the upper classes and castes have committed. No state is held accountable for the numbers of outcasts that exist in the ranks of society.

If you are fortunate enough to run into a spiritual mendicant, offer him some ganja, as this is his fuel. If he has enough, he will refuse to accept it. He has no need for your money, nor does he intend to kill and eat your children. He rarely has need for food and clothes. If you happen to run into a tramp, offer him some work so that he can do something to earn a living, and eventually find food, a home, clothing and even a family. He will most probably gladly accept ganja, though it is money that he needs more. He will use the ganja to relieve his suffering, but with enough money earned from hard work, he can probably grow a few plants to consume and sell, or even start a small-scale industry connected with cannabis, that ensures that he is sustainable for life. If you see a beggar, try to see the world through his eyes, and the scheme of things that has got him to where he is now. Give him also some ganja, if that helps to get him out of his addiction for money, alcohol and other possible strong drugs. I was once walking down a street in Pune, when I smelt cannabis from a joint that a young man walking in front of me was smoking. I did something that I have never done before or since, I asked him if I can have a drag from his joint. It had been some days since I had smoked cannabis. He was kind, and obliged, saying, 'I understand the need for weed.' That drag kept me happy for the rest of the evening, and some days after.

They, who do not share our way of life, came and took away all that we had but we remained content. They tried to make us work for them, but we broke free. They tried to make us give up the things we loved, and to love the things that they loved - amassing wealth, accruing material possessions, having power over other humans, destroying nature for their own wants. Out in the countryside, they tried to make us toil on the lands that they took away from us to grow what they valued the most - their sugar and tobacco plantations and cotton fields. They tried to lure us into their cities with promises of luxury and comfort in order to deceive us and make us work for them. When we refused to surrender, they lynched us, nailed us to the cross, put us in prisons, paraded us in cages, enclosed us in reservations, called us insane...They tried to seduce us with their infantile toys and possessions, but we chose to remain aloof. We chose to stay as close to the animal in nature as possible, and away from the plastic humans that they had become. They took away everything that they possibly could, but they could not take away our freedom that exists in our minds...We chose to live with as little as possible, while they chose to live with as much as possible...Our steadfastness filled their minds with terror...When they saw us coming they looked the other way, pulled their children into their houses, and slammed their doors and windows in our faces. They mocked us and scorned us, but, we, for whom shame and fame are one and the same, do not cower and cringe.

Of all the things that they took away, the thing we prized the most was our beloved ganja. It was the spiritual herb that strengthened our minds and made us content with wherever we were, and with whatever we had. It was the herb that we used to stay in our minds rooted in the eternal spirit. They tried to feed us their poisons that they had created, that bred discontentment, created divisions in the mind and between all forms of nature, and fueled their unquenchable thirst and insatiable hunger for wealth, social status, and feelings of superiority. Even though our herb was taken away from us, we did not succumb to their poisons and their seductions. They said that we were pagans, and that our herb made us worship the devil. They said that we enjoyed pleasure and ecstasy. They added our herb to their poisons and enjoyed it in secret, while they admonished us for our love for the herb. They made our herb so scarce and costly that only they could afford it. If any of us were found with the herb, it was destroyed and we were imprisoned. When they could no longer hide their own love for the herb, they said that they used it as medicine, and not for the pleasure it gave them. They said that using the herb as medicine was not wrong, but we who used it for our beatification were wrong and evil. They started to grow and sell the herb amongst themselves and get rich with it. When we asked for our herb to be given back to us, they said that this was not possible. They said that only they could use it, as they never used it improperly. Despite all their efforts, we managed to get access to the herb, at great risk to ourselves, briefly and occasionally, like people lost in the desert finding just enough water to keep them alive...for now... 

We, the hobos, the outcasts, the tramps, the vagabonds, the lowest classes, the lowest castes, the despicables, the unseen, the unheard, the unspoken of, the dregs of society, the untouchables, the walkers, the wanderers, the homeless...We, the free, the unconquered, the unbroken, the untamable, the wild, the unclassifiable, the spiritual mendicants...We, the lovers of both light and darkness, life and death, form and void, pain and pleasure, joy and sorrow, beauty and ugliness, the serpent and the flower, poison and nectar...We, who love the worm as much as we love the human, the inanimate as much as the animate, singularity as much as infinity, the devil as much as god, nothing as much as everything, the storms as much as placidity, defeat as much as victory...We, who see all as equal, all as one, and one as all...We, the lovers of the ganja...