Cannabis Biology

 

The cannabis plant is said to have emerged around 28 millions of years, branching out from the Humulus plant, which also gave us the hops to make our beer. That makes it many, many millions of years older than the modern human being. In the course of time since its emergence, the plant has evolved through time and space to its current mind boggling varieties found all over the world. The plant was such an integral part of human culture, recreational and medical use that recorded evidence exist of its widespread usage over tens of thousands of years, in many cultures worldwide.  The discovery, in the 1990s, of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in humans and other mammals indicate that the plant was responsible for a lot of mammalian evolutionary development, shaping  our biology and making us who we are today. A key part of human evolutionary branching out, and the subsequent trajectory it took, in terms of brain development could be strongly attributed to the cannabis plant and its relationship with us. We are, even now, still in the early stages of understanding the role of the endocannabinoid system and its evolution.

 

Broadly speaking, the plant is said to have have four classes, Cannabis Sativa, Cannabis Indica, Cannabis Rudalis and Cannabis Sativa L (known as hemp). This is the scientific classification based on the work of the eminent botanist, Carl Linnaeus. This, however, presents just one way of looking at the plant. In India, in the past, and still today in many places, the plant is classified as male, female and hermaphrodite, with the male being used primarily for industrial purposes, the female for intoxication and the hermaphrodite generally regarded as of less use. The varieties of cannabis found world wide are based on multiple factors, such as the geography in which it is found, the soil, climate conditions, etc. This plays a significant role in the plant's composition and the hundreds of compounds it contains, including terpenes, flavinoids, and of course, cannabinoids. Wild growing natural cannabis varieties that have evolved without human intervention are now said to be more and more difficult to find. These may have been the parent species from which much of today's cannabis varieties evolved. The natural growing varieties, if they exist at all anymore, are likely to exist in remote places like in the Himalayas, China, Taiwan, Central Asia, or deep forests of Africa and South America. More or less everywhere else, the varieties that we find today have evolved from cultivation by the communities that used the plant. Even these naturally cultivated varieties are getting to be rare, with industrialization of cannabis cultivation and the use of artificial methods to breed cannabis with high levels of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD).

Nothing has damaged the cannabis plant more than its prohibition, resulting in huge hurdles to the understanding of the plant. Prohibition started in the 19th century in the colonies of Britain, such as India,  Burma (today's Myanmar), Egypt, Greece and Trinidad, and spread to the US, UK and Canada, before finally being imposed across the world through the UN and its 1961 Single Convention Treaty. With prohibition, information about the plant and access to the plant became so difficult that knowledge about it existed only in a few places. Most available data on the plant bordered on myth, misinformation, propaganda and fiction, fueled by the entities opposed to cannabis. Many precious varieties of cannabis may have gone extinct through the war against cannabis that has raged for more than 150 years now. Wherever the plant is found growing, it is systematically destroyed by overzealous law and drug enforcement officials, and ignorant sections of society. India was the home of cannabis until the 19th century, with the plant being cultivated across the length and breadth of the country. Each area had its own distinct varieties of cannabis, spawning a variety of names for the magical plant. The prohibition of cannabis in India, that started from the 19th century, destroyed many unknown varieties of cannabis in India.

 

With growing worldwide legalization, access to the plant is increasing for biologists, along with the associated support and funding for research. The plant's biology is now, once again, being studied and reported by growing numbers of researchers. Research on the plant through industry backing, through governmental studies, and a growing number of university programs, is yielding more and more scientific facts about the plant's biology. 

 

In December 2020, the UN removed cannabis from its most restrictive schedule, Schedule IV, of the 1961 Single Convention Treaty, but still retained it in its least restrictive schedule, Schedule I. This move is said to help improve research and access to the plant for medicinal purposes. But on the ground, this retention of cannabis in international drug scheduling, still poses all the hurdles on the plant's study and use that the earlier scheduling posed. It only makes it easier for powerful pharma companies and the very nations that brought about the plant's prohibition to benefit from it.

As research on the plant proceeds, we discover every day newer cannabinoid compounds such as cannabinol (CBN), cannabigerol (CBG), d-9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (d-9-THCV) and so on, each with its own magic properties. The cannabis genome is said to have been mapped by a few entities. Every part of the plant, from its roots, stalk, leaves, flowers and seeds, even its bio-waste, hold vast potential for recreational, medicinal, industrial, agricultural and environmental uses, not just for humans but for the entire planet.

 

Even as the majority of the world still views the plant as illegal, we can be sure that what we are seeing now is just the tip of the proverbial iceberg when it comes to an understanding of the cannabis plant's genetics, biology and awesome properties. With modern scientific tools and technology we have a great opportunity to understand the magical plant and the nature of the world's association with it better. It is imperative that we stop the destruction of the cannabis plant, and start looking at protecting and propagating its biodiversity. This requires programs on global scales, along the lines of the Project Tiger in India. Indigenous communities, who are the traditional guardians and cultivators of cannabis, must be given the power back to do this again. Cannabis seedbanks, and other ways to protect cannabis biodiversity, especially of indigenous varieties of cannabis found in every country, must be pursued by all governments. By saving the restoring the cannabis plant we will only be saving ourselves.

Related articles

The following set of articles related to the subject are taken from various media. Words in italics are the thoughts of yours truly at the time of reading the article. 

'Terpenes in the cannabis plant enhance the ability of THC to interact with the endogenous CB1 receptor, potentially heightening its effects, according to preclinical data published in the journal Biochemical Pharmacology.

Israeli scientists evaluated the role of terpenes in CB1 receptor-mediated functions. Researchers also assessed the extent to which terpenes acted as direct CB1 receptor agonists and as modulators of THC agonism.

Researchers reported certain terpenes – including borneol, geraniol, limonene, linalool, ocimene, sabinene, and terpineol – amplified THC activity at the CB1 receptor, even at low quantities.

They reported: “The results demonstrate that all terpenes, when tested individually, activate CB1 receptors, at about 10-50 percent of the activation by THC alone. The combination of some of these terpenes with THC significantly increases the activity of the CB1 receptor, compared to THC alone. In some cases, several fold. Importantly, this amplification is evident at terpene to THC ratios similar to those in the cannabis plant, which reflect very low terpene concentrations.”'

https://norml.org/news/2023/04/27/study-terpenes-in-cannabis-modulate-the-interaction-between-thc-and-its-endogenous-receptor/

'More than 50,000 unique terpenes have been identified to date, and in the cannabis plant alone, scientists have mapped around 250.

With such an extensive pool to draw from, understanding what’s in your terpene formulation is an absolute necessity for safe and compliant products.

Terpenes for cannabis products are cannabis-derived or botanical-derived, meaning they have been extracted either directly from a cannabis plant as an essential oil or from other non-cannabis plants such as pine or lavender.

Knowing the difference is important in terms of compliance: Cannabis-derived terpene formulations are subject to local cannabis regulations while botanical-derived terpenes are not.

The origin of the terpenes also impacts purity, consistency and scalability.'

https://mjbizdaily.com/guidelines-for-adding-terpenes-to-marijuana-hemp-products/

 

 

'Hemp is merely a type of plant in the Cannabaceae family. The difference between hemp and cannabis is purely legal in the US—hemp is defined as having less than 0.3% THC. '

https://www.leafly.com/learn/cannabis-glossary/hemp

 
'Results: Most of the samples (n=65; 51.2%) reported use of CBG-predominant products solely for medical purposes (n=46; 36.2% reported use for medical and recreational purposes; n=8; 6.3% reported recreational use only, and n=8 were missing). The most common conditions the complete sample reported using CBG to treat were anxiety (51.2%), chronic pain (40.9%), depression (33.1%), and insomnia/disturbed sleep (30.7%). Efficacy was highly rated, with the majority reporting their conditions were “very much improved” or “much improved” by CBG. Furthermore, 73.9% claimed superiority of CBG-predominant cannabis over conventional medicines for chronic pain, 80% for depression, 73% for insomnia, and 78.3% for anxiety. Forty-four percent of CBG-predominant cannabis users reported no adverse events, with 16.5% noting dry mouth, 15% sleepiness, 11.8% increased appetite, and 8.7% dry eyes. Around 84.3% reported no withdrawal symptoms, with sleep difficulties representing the most frequently endorsed withdrawal symptom (endorsed by two respondents).

Conclusions: This is the first patient survey of CBG-predominant cannabis use to date, and the first to document self-reported efficacy of CBG-predominant products, particularly for anxiety, chronic pain, depression, and insomnia. Most respondents reported greater efficacy of CBG-predominant cannabis over conventional pharmacotherapy, with a benign adverse event profile and negligible withdrawal symptoms. This study establishes that humans are employing CBG and suggests that CBG-predominant cannabis-based medicines should be studied in randomized controlled trials.'

https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/can.2021.0058

'An heirloom strain is a cannabis strain that is cultivated in a geographically distinct location from where it originated, and has genetics that have been preserved over an extended period of time, often for generations or longer.

Heirloom strains have not been crossbred and usually display characteristics of pure indica or sativa plants rather than a hybrid of both. Heirloom strains have not been genetically manipulated and are meant to be pollinated openly without direct human interference. '

https://www.leafly.com/learn/cannabis-glossary/heirloom

 

 

'Caryophyllene is a terpene found in cannabis, as well as in many other plants such as hops, cinnamon, basil, oregano, cloves, and black pepper. Sometimes referred to as beta-caryophyllene or BCP, this terpene is known for its pungent peppery and earthy aroma and flavor. In addition, caryophyllene is unique among terpenes for its ability to bind to the cannabinoid receptor CB2.

Like some cannabinoids, this allows it to trigger health benefits associated with the CB2 receptor, such as reducing inflammation. '

https://www.leafly.com/learn/cannabis-glossary/caryophyllene

 
'This review highlights the chemistry, types and biological activities of the cannabinoids such as THC, CBD and CBN in focus with their anticancer activity, neuroprotective effect and nanoformulating the cannabinoid drugs.'

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S135951132100266X

 

 

'CBN was discovered in the 1930s and then, in the 1940s, became the first cannabinoid to be isolated.

And while it provides a mild psychotropic effect, up until recently not much has been done with it.

Unlike CBD, CBN is hard to make.

Little to no CBN is created or contained in new or fresh cannabis plants.

The cannabinoid is produced when marijuana or hemp plants are exposed over long periods of time to air and sunlight.

As the cannabis dries and ages, an oxidation process turns the THC molecules found in marijuana and hemp into CBN.

Yet, until now, the time involved to produce consistent CBN naturally hasn’t been practical.

It took a growing sleep-aid market and tales of the sedative nature of smoking old marijuana to get the industry to rethink CBN.'

https://mjbizdaily.com/cannabinoid-cbn-might-be-surprise-hit-in-cannabis-industry/

 
'People use THCV for a variety of different medical uses. While human studies are limited, research suggests it could be helpful for a number of different issues.

THCV is commonly used to reduce anxiety relative to THC, as THC is known to cause anxiety in some consumers. Some studies have found that when THC and THCV are combined, consumers have less anxiety than with THC alone.

THCV’s appetite-suppressing qualities have also led many to use it as a diet drug to help reduce obesity. Other studies suggest THCV could be helpful for type two diabetes, specifically with regulating blood sugar control and insulin production. GW pharmaceuticals is even working on a THCV-based medicine for type 2 diabetes.

Other studies suggest THCV might help treat conditions like epilepsy, Parkinson’s Disease, and osteoporosis.'

https://www.leafly.com/learn/cannabis-glossary/thcv


'High THC concentrations were observed in lungs, moderate concentrations were seen in the brain, heart, and kidneys, and low concentrations were noted in the liver. A physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was constructed to describe blood and tissue THC concentrations in rabbits following the administration of smoked cannabis by inhalation...The findings add substantially to our understanding of postmortem cannabinoid concentrations and can aid forensic toxicologists in the interpretation of cannabinoid findings in death investigations.'

https://shareok.org/handle/11244/330177


'If you decide to go the old-school route of just looking for indicators from the plant that it’s ready, Brie Kralick, director of cultivation operations for Hava Gardens, based in De Beque, Colorado, recommends looking at the pistils rather than the trichomes.

Trichomes can look cloudy – which some growers say is the time to harvest – but they can also revert to clear, according to Kralick.

Instead, she likes to check for color in the pistils on the buds.

“If the majority of the pistils are more orange, it’s mostly finished,” Kralick said. “If not, you have more time.”'

https://mjbizdaily.com/how-cultivators-can-prepare-for-a-cannabis-harvest/

'While kief specifically refers to the bulbous, crystal formation on the tip of a gland, the substance itself is just one part of what is called a trichome, or a “hair.”

Many different plants and algae have external trichomes for specific evolutionary purposes. For example, some carnivorous plants rely on sticky trichomes to trap their prey. Other plants, like cannabis, use them as a deterrent to herbivores.

Trichomes on the marijuana plant keep away hungry herbivores by producing an intense psychoactive experience, theoretically disorienting the animal and preventing it from eating the rest of the plant. The resin’s strong, distinct odor also attracts pollinating insects and predators, which might keep herbivore populations at bay.'

https://www.leafly.com/news/cannabis-101/what-is-kief

'Our genomic dating suggests that early domesticated ancestors of hemp and drug types diverged from Basal cannabis ~12,000 years B.P. (95% confidence interval: 6458 to 15,728 years B.P.; Fig. 2B and table S3), indicating that the species had already been domesticated by early Neolithic times. This coincides with the dating of cord-impressed pottery from South China and Taiwan (12,000 years B.P.), as well as pottery-associated seeds from Japan (10,000 years B.P.). Archaeological sites with hemp-type Cannabis artifacts are consistently found from 7500 years B.P. in China and Japan, and pollen consistent with cultivated Cannabis was found in China more than 5000 years B.P. Only a small number of early domesticated Cannabis strains expanded to later form hemp and drug types ~4000 years B.P., a time when multiple fiber artifacts appear in East Asia, and when fiber-grown Cannabis was spreading westward into Europe and the Middle East, as shown by Bronze Age archaeological evidence. Ritualistic and inebriant use of Cannabis has in turn been documented in Western China from archaeological remains at least 2500 years B.P. (34, 35). The first archaeobotanical record of C. sativa in the Indian subcontinent dates back to ~3000 years B.P., the species likely being introduced from China together with other crops (36, 37). In contrast with East Asia, historical texts from India from as early as 2000 years B.P. indicate that the species was only exploited for drug use. Over the next centuries, drug-type Cannabis traveled to various world regions, including Africa (13th century) and Latin America (16th century), progressively reaching North America at the beginning of the 20th century and later, in the 1970s, from the Indian subcontinent.'

https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/7/29/eabg2286

 

 

'Myrcene is a terpene found in the cannabis plant, as well as in other plants such as mango, lemongrass, basil, and hops. It has an earthy, peppery aroma with sweet, fruity undertones and notes of mango and balsam. Some studies on animals have found myrcene can act as a muscle relaxant, pain reliever, anti-inflammatory and sedative in rodents, but studies are needed to confirm that humans can also benefit from these effects.'

https://www.leafly.com/learn/cannabis-glossary/myrcene

 
'Pinene is one of the most common terpenes found in nature, and as the name suggests, it smells like pine. Pinene can be found in many of the foods that are commonly found in the kitchen, such as the peels of oranges and limes, and in herbs like basil, parsley, and rosemary.

For the growing cannabis plant, it functions as a natural insecticide. It is currently being researched as a treatment for neurological diseases. '

https://www.leafly.com/learn/cannabis-glossary/pinene

'Though they are often lumped together under the same industry umbrella of hemp, the three subcategories which make up the sector – including cannabinoids, grain, and fiber – have less in common than it may seem.

Each segment has entirely different production needs when it comes to cultivating, sorting, and processing material, and their end markets are often entirely unrelated – be it cannabinoids, health foods, industrial materials, textiles, etc. Even the plants themselves differ noticeably: Most CBD cultivars are bushy and shorter than 4 feet, while fiber cultivars are tall and thin, with some reaching 20 feet tall. Indeed, the differences are almost great enough to constitute a separate plant species.'

https://newfrontierdata.com/cannabis-insights/segment-differentiations-beginning-to-redefine-the-hemp-industry/


'Hash comes from trichomes, the ripe, resinous gland heads that line the surface of cannabis plants. Processes to achieve resin separation have been practiced for centuries, however, the rapid rise of cannabis legalization in the Western world has brought new methods in hash preparation that are sweeping legal markets by storm.'

https://www.leafly.com/news/cannabis-101/what-is-hashish

'Authors concluded: “This study is thus the first to show that terpenes and cannabinoids can produce an additive effect when combined. This study is also the first to identify the CB1 and A2a receptors as terpene targets and describe the role of these receptors in producing terpene cannabimimetic effects in vivo. … In principle, this suggests that terpenes could be used to enhance the analgesic properties of cannabis/cannabinoid therapy, without worsening the side effects of cannabinoid treatment. However, this must be confirmed using relevant phytocannabinoids like THC instead of the synthetic cannabinoid WIN55,212-2 used in this study.”'

https://norml.org/news/2021/05/20/study-terpenes-and-cannabinoids-produce-additive-therapeutic-effects

'“Dependable” genetics – i.e., those seeds capable of delivering predictable yields that avoid risk of running “hot” (i.e., testing above the regulatory legal limit of 0.3% THC) – require cultivars that have been fully acclimatized to a geographic region, a process which can take upwards of seven years. Due to the U.S. federal government’s 81-year-long prohibition of hemp cultivation, however, states have primarily been using cultivars developed for use in Europe, Canada, and China. For the most part, those cultivars have performed adequately, but issues have emerged in hemp crops located in warmer climates, which tend to be at higher risk for testing hot'

https://newfrontierdata.com/cannabis-insights/cultivar-availability-casts-doubts-about-seed-supply-in-2022/

'European health and beauty product manufacturers can now safely use hemp-derived cannabigerol or CBG in their cosmetics and skin care lines with approval from a key market regulator for trade in the European Union.

The European Commission added CBG last month as a safe ingredient for skin conditioning to Cosing, its cosmetics ingredient database.

Hemp extractors and manufacturers tout the benefits of using hemp-derived CBG in skin care and cosmetics products, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant properties.'

https://hempindustrydaily.com/european-commission-adds-cbg-as-legal-ingredient-for-cosmetics-skin-care/

'Because delta-8 THC is manufactured from hemp-derived CBD, not extracted directly from the hemp plant, it is a controlled substance under law, according to the DEA.

“From a chemist’s perspective, it is clear that the isomerization of CBD to delta-8 THC with a catalyst is a chemical process,” said Erik Paulson, lab manager at Infinite Chemical Analysis Labs, a cannabis testing laboratory with locations in California and Michigan. “Any product of a chemical reaction like this one is, by definition, a synthetic chemical.”'

https://hempindustrydaily.com/more-states-banning-delta-8-thc-as-regulators-clarify-its-legality-under-federal-law/


'Delta-8 THC, short for delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, is a cannabinoid found in trace amounts in the cannabis plant. It is similar to the THC found in a majority of cannabis products, which is called delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, or delta-9, however delta-8 is much less potent than regular THC.

Delta-8 can be made from hemp in addition to cannabis, and because of the 2018 Farm Bill, hemp can be grown all over the US. Consumers in states that don’t have legal cannabis laws want THC products, even if those products have a reduced potency, so hemp farmers are producing more delta-8 to meet demand.

Some consumers may even prefer cannabis products that aren’t as strong as regular THC—cannabis can cause negative effects for some, giving them anxiety or paranoia. Delta-8 can offer a smoother, milder high.'

https://www.leafly.com/learn/cannabis-glossary/delta-8


'Hemp has a long history of cultivation in the U.S. Hemp was grown by most of the Founders, and in 2018, George Washington’s Mount Vernon Estate harvested its first hemp crop since 1799. All ships in every war prior to World War II had ropes and sails made from hemp grown in the U.S. Until the Marijuana Tax Act of 1937, which was found to be unconstitutional in 1969, hemp was a major agricultural commodity in the U.S.

Given that hemp is legal and enjoys national, bipartisan support, now is an appropriate time for the Botanic Garden to display hemp plants.'

https://www.popville.com/2021/04/hemp-botanic-garden/


'Back in the day, choosing what cannabis to consume was all about three little letters — THC — and the more of it there was, the higher you’d get.

Today, picking a product means facing an avalanche of acronyms, each representing a lesser-known chemical compound derived from the cannabis plant and each with its potential health and wellness superpower. Here’s a guide to help cut down on confusion.'

https://www.latimes.com/lifestyle/story/2021-04-15/cannabis-101-thc-cbd-minor-cannabinoids-to-know

'People compare particular strains to a variety of scents: lemon, pine, cloves, wood, skunk, and even diesel. There are many things cannabis can smell like, but do any of them indicate a whiff of trouble?

Here are the most common olfactory clues that something’s wrong with your cannabis:'

https://www.leafly.com/news/strains-products/what-cannabis-should-not-smell-like

'As the dust from the tumultuous year of 2020 settles, it looks increasingly clear that consumer demand for CBD is here to stay. After a meteoric rise to national prominence beginning with the inception of state hemp pilot programs in 2014, U.S. consumer spending on CBD reached $3.8 billion USD in 2020.

CBD and other minor cannabinoids have gained acceptance from an ever-expanding segment of consumers who see the compound as both a functional and effective means to treat myriad ailments. A reported 41% of American CBD consumers surveyed use it primarily for pain, while 33% cited anxiety relief as their primary motivation. All in all, more than half (51%) of all Americans surveyed reported having friends or family who regularly consume CBD. Increasingly, confidence in the medical efficacy of CBD appears to have solid scientific footing. Epidiolex, the first pharmaceutical product based on cannabidiol, accounted for more than half-a-billion dollars’ worth of sales in 2020, with more research and development of pharmaceutical products sure to follow.'

https://newfrontierdata.com/cannabis-insights/dogged-cbd-demand-seems-destined-to-run-on/

'Consuming too much THC at one time can be temporarily unpleasant. But studies have as of yet failed to identify any independent relationship between cannabis use and mental, physical, or psychiatric illnesses.

Furthermore, THC — regardless of potency or quantity — cannot cause death by lethal overdose. Alcohol, by contrast, is routinely sold in lethal dose quantities. Drinking a handle of vodka could easily kill a person, yet vodka is available in liquor stores throughout the country.

Just as alcohol is available in a variety of potencies, from light beer to hard liquor, so is cannabis. So most users regulate their intake accordingly.'

https://www.counterpunch.org/2021/03/12/is-pot-really-more-potent-these-days-does-it-matter/

'Delta-8 (D8) THC is an intoxicating cannabinoid which can be rather easily derived from its nonintoxicating counterpart, CBD. It is often confused with the better-known Delta-9 THC, the main intoxicating component of marijuana. Though both Delta-8 and Delta-9 THC can get users high, the latter is federally prohibited, while due to a legal loophole the former can be legally obtained in all 50 states.

Delta-8’s legal status is ambivalent at best: The nature of the loophole which allows for its production and sale rests on the definition of what “synthetic” means. The 2018 Farm Bill states that all cannabinoids derived from hemp with a Delta-9 THC concentration of less than 0.3% are lawful, but adds that synthetically derived THC remains illegal. Delta-8 THC is present organically in some hemp cultivars, but can also be readily derived from CBD molecules collected from hemp, and the delineation for Delta-8 is becoming blurrier by the moment.'

https://newfrontierdata.com/cannabis-insights/what-is-the-deal-about-delta-8-a-cannabinoids-legal-loophole-and-disruptive-outlook/

'While the expanding cannabis legalization movement shows that most of the world believes cannabis to be a relatively safe substance, the stigma around cannabis use, particularly the intoxicating high caused by THC, persists. But Ben Pollara, among others, argues that THC is one of the most beneficial aspects of the plant.

“THC is one of many chemicals in marijuana but is by far and away the most active one,” Pollara writes. “It is also the one which produces the most and strongest medicinal effects for patients.”'

https://www.leafly.com/news/politics/prohibitionists-want-thc-limit-laws-heres-why-patients-and-consumers-are-fighting-back


'CBG was discovered in the 1960s but for decades has been ignored, its uses unclear and its economics difficult to support. CBG is the first — and so, parent — cannabinoid to form as the cannabis plants grow. Yet by the time the plants are normally harvested, it gives way to more familiar cannabinoids such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). CBG constitutes less than 1 percent by weight of most cannabis strains by that point.

But a growing body of recent research suggests that CBG can directly help improve our immunity, sleep, mood and appetite. It has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, improves bone health and positively affects bladder, skin and bowel health. Some studies have even suggested that it might help with cancer treatment. '

https://www.ozy.com/the-new-and-the-next/can-the-rolls-royce-of-cannabis-reach-the-masses/411227/

'The predominant analytical methods for measuring cannabinoid content are gas chromatography (GC), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), with the latter becoming increasingly popular. Terpenes, on the other hand, are usually measured separately using GC, partly because the optimal extraction of cannabinoids and terpenes requires different conditions, most notably the solvents used. The researchers focused on the conditions of sample preparation and extraction that allowed simultaneous measurements using GC. Dried and powdered hemp material was extracted in solvents by sonication, followed by centrifugation.'

https://mjbizdaily.com/chromatographic-method-measures-cannabinoid-and-terpene-levels-simultaneously/

'The ability of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) inflorescence extract to counteract lipid oxidation was studied in stripped linseed oil. The ethanolic extract was characterized in terms of terpenes (6.00 mg/mL), cannabidiol (4.99% w/w), phenolic compounds (1.80 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/mL), antiradical, and metal ion-chelating activities (50% effective concentration (EC50) of 2.47 mg/mL and 0.39 mg/mL, respectively). The stripped linseed oil, used as control (CO), was mixed with hemp extract (HO) or a-tocopherol (EO) at a ratio of 0.6% (w/w) and stored for 7 days in darkness at 40 °C. Hemp extract reduced the oxidation and lipolysis processes. At the end of the storage, HO showed a significantly higher level of a-linolenic acid (ALA; 26.64 g/100 g), lower peroxide value (PV) (21.19 meq O2/kg oil), and lower hexanal content (7.67 mmol/kg oil) than those found in the control. In contrast, EO showed a marked lipolysis (the free fatty acids increased by 42.57%) and a noticeable oxidation, since the ALA content decreased by 2.10% and a PV of 50 meq O2/kg oil was observed. This study demonstrates that hemp inflorescences can be used as a source of natural antioxidants in vegetable oils and lipid products to retard their oxidation, especially those characterized by a high degree of unsaturation.'

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/9/11/1131

'Results
We identified 12 eligible studies from the USA, UK, Netherlands, France, Denmark, Italy and New Zealand. For all herbal cannabis, THC concentrations increased by 0.29% each year (95% CI: 0.11, 0.47), P < 0.001 based on 66747 cannabis samples from eight studies, 1970–2017. For cannabis resin, THC concentrations increased by 0.57% each year (95% CI: 0.10, 1.03), P = 0.017 based on 17371 samples from eight studies, 1975–2017. There was no evidence for changes in CBD in herbal cannabis [-0.01% (95% CI: -0.02, 0.01), P = 0.280; 49434 samples from five studies, 1995–2017] or cannabis resin [0.03% (95% CI: -0.11, 0.18), P = 0.651; 11382 samples from six studies, 1992–2017]. Risk of bias was low apart from non-random sampling in most studies. There was evidence of moderate to substantial heterogeneity.

Conclusions
Concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in international cannabis markets increased from 1970 to 2017 while cannabidiol (CBD) remained stable. Increases in THC were greater in cannabis resin than herbal cannabis. Rising THC in herbal cannabis was attributable to an increased market share of high-THC sinsemilla relative to low-THC traditional herbal cannabis.'

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.15253

'So does six-year-old weed still work? Absolutely. It has THC in it and THC gets you high, so even the smallest amount will still yield some changes in your body. However, the older the weed, the less cannabinoids and terpenes in it, which means effects will be weakened.'

https://www.leafly.com/news/strains-products/can-old-weed-still-get-you-high

'Delta-9-THC, the main drug in cannabis plants that gets people high, can also be a potent medicine. It can treat extreme nausea and stimulate appetite, which is especially helpful for people who have HIV or are going through chemotherapy. A synthetic version of THC, called Dronabinol, has been used to treat these conditions since the 1980s, although some people prefer their THC to come from the plant itself.

But while marijuana is a relatively mild drug with few side effects — at least, compared to alcohol or tobacco — too much Delta-9-THC has its downsides. It can sometimes spark paranoia and anxiety or trigger dizziness and headaches. And it’s worth noting that much of the cannabis sold legally in the U.S. contains a high THC concentration.

That’s why many cannabis consumers are turning to an obscure analogue of Delta-9-THC called Delta-8-THC. The difference between Delta-8 and Delta-9 is subtle: Both will get you stoned, but the former is about half as potent as the latter. Many people claim that Delta-8 is a smoother, less anxious psychoactive experience than the more familiar Delta-9. It also seems to have additional medicinal effects than regular THC, such as better pain relief, but these claims have yet to be weighed out in clinical trials.'

https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/delta-8-thc-promises-to-get-you-high-without-the-paranoia-or-anxiety

'In the present work, Cannabis sativa L. cv Futura 75 inflorescences, cultivated in the Abruzzo territory, were characterized for their volatile fraction through SPME-GC-MS. In addition, the essential oil extracted from these inflorescences was investigated for the antioxidant potentialities and for the terpenic profile. The antibacterial activity of hemp essential oil (HEO) against some pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms isolated from food was also evaluated by determining the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The results showed significant antioxidant capacity (DPPH: 63.38±0.08mg TE/g HEO; FRAP: 438.52±6.92mg TE/g HEO) alongside good antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria such as S. aureus and L. monocytogenes (MIC 1.25-5µL/mL). The results obtained suggest that hemp essential oil can inhibit or reduce bacterial growth, also exerting antioxidant activity, and therefore it can find an advantageous application in the food processing field.'

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14786419.2020.1813139?journalCode=gnpl20


'Your standard cannabis plant is full of different cannabinoids, the most popular being THC and CBD. CBG is what’s called a minor cannabinoid—most cannabis strains contain less than 1 percent of it. Chemically, it’s the precursor to THC and CBD, breaking down into the other cannabinoids when exposed to ultraviolet light or heat.

Because of this, a strain with high levels of CBG is going to mean less THC or CBD. But CBG has its own draw. Users report that it’s similar to CBD for relaxation, and Gross notes that it’s a great way to wind down at the end of the day or get ready for bed. Its unique makeup opens up even more opportunities for cannabis lovers who want to catch some sleep without risking paranoia or anxiety from an intoxicating strain.'

https://www.leafly.com/news/cbd/is-cbg-the-new-cbd


Collection and conservation of germplasm of indigenous populations of Central and South Asian landraces in their centers of diversity is urgently needed. The germplasm base outside their centers of diversity has become genetically contaminated by widespread crossbreeding. In the context of climate change and unpredictable future needs, in situ conservation of agrobiodiversity is much preferable for crop plants and their wild relatives, but given the precarious continued existence of unaltered aboriginal wild populations of Cannabis in Asia, preservation in seed banks is an immediate priority. Hopefully the unambiguous names provided may help prevent extinction of these taxa.'
https://phytokeys.pensoft.net/article/46700/


'The present study successfully identified spatio-temporal and cultivar level variations in the fungal and bacterial microbiomes of C. sativa. The beta-diversity metrics demonstrated clear dissimilarly between the microbiome at different growth stages and across micro-environments. Alpha-diversity demonstrated a concomitant rise in community richness and evenness as the plant ages, but a drop in those features was progressively observed between the rhizosphere, endosphere and phyllosphere. The latter is in accord with previous work showing a selection model where each compartment acquires a subset from the others (Edwards et al., 2015). Inter-cultivar diversity was also discovered. To our surprise, the greatest diversity between chemotypes was found belowground where we were able to identify cultivar specific inhabitant using LEfSe.'
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7105690/


'Here we describe stable isotope based models using hydrogen and carbon isotope ratios to predict geographic region-of-origin and growth environment for marijuana, with the intent of applying these models to analyses of marijuana trafficking in the USA. The models were developed on the basis of eradication specimens and border specimens seized throughout the USA. We tested reliability of the geographic region-of-origin and growth environment models with a “blind” set of 60 marijuana eradication specimens obtained from counties throughout the USA. The two geographic region-of-origin model predictions were 60–67% reliable and cultivation environment model predictions were 86% accurate for the blind specimens. We demonstrate here that stable isotope ratio analysis of marijuana seizures can significantly improve our understanding of marijuana distribution networks and it is for that purpose that these models were developed.'
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1355030609001750?via%3Dihub


'The study of herbal medicine spans the knowledge of biology, history, source, physical and chemical nature, and mechanism of action, traditional, medicinal and therapeutic use of drug. This article also provide knowledge about macroscopically and microscopically characters of Cannabis sativa with geographical sources. The wellknown cannabinoids are Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Cannabidiol (CBD) and Cannabichromene (CBC) and their pharmacological properties and importance have been extensively studied. Hence, efforts are required to establish and validate evidence regarding safety and practices of Ayurveda medicines.

Conclusion: These studies will help in expanding the current therapeutic potential of C. sativa and it also provide a strong support to its future clinical use as herbal medicines having safe in use with no side effects'
https://www.eurekaselect.com/183226/article


'Results and conclusion: Through a detailed analysis of the available resources about the origins of C. sativa we found that its use by ancient civilizations as a source of food and textile fibers dates back over 10,000 years, while its therapeutic applications have been improved over the centuries, from the ancient East medicine of the 2nd and 1st millennium B.C. to the more recent introduction in the Western world after the 1st century A.D. In the 20th and 21th centuries, Cannabis and its derivatives have been considered as a menace and banned throughout the world, but nowadays they are still the most widely consumed illicit drugs all over the world. Its legalization in some jurisdictions has been accompanied by new lines of research to investigate its possible applications for medical and therapeutic purposes.'
https://www.eurekaselect.com/182145/article

'In fact, according to advocates of small cannabis businesses, if the sector evolves under the right conditions, craft will be the future of the marijuana sector.

Conversely, they say, under the wrong conditions, craft will perish and leave the space to a handful of cannabis conglomerates.'
https://mjbizdaily.com/craft-cannabis-is-the-marijuana-industrys-small-batch-sector/


'Cannabidiol (CBD) is an illegal drug with no redeeming value. It is also a useful prescription medicine for epilepsy, with considerable potential for treating numerous other conditions. And it is a natural dietary supplement or ‘nutraceutical’ with countless evangelists in the health and wellness community. Although contradictory, all three statements are true from different perspectives, and clinical researchers are frustrated.'
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02524-5


'The technological provenance of cannabinoids might not matter as much to the pharmaceutical sector, where consumers tend to be less averse to genetic engineering. But according to Ethan Russo, director of research and development at the International Cannabis and Cannabinoids Institute in Prague, biochemically derived cannabinoids, even when mixed and matched into therapeutic formulations, will probably never equal the botanical synergy of the hundreds of molecules that are found in cannabis.

The existence of this ‘entourage’ effect is not universally accepted. But to Russo, “The plant is nature’s design for this panoply of chemicals”.'
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02525-4


'There is little industry-wide consensus on cultivation best practice. Some outdoor growers might divert streams to water crops, whereas others pursue dry farming, which uses no irrigation. Indoors, growers sometimes choose cooler, light-emitting diode (LED) lights to substantially decrease water use. Meanwhile, others simply expand small, energy-intense facilities into larger operations. “There is a wide range of energy efficiency,” Smith says. “Outdoor crops planted from seeds might have a zero footprint, while old-style indoor cultivation can be 500 times more energy intensive.”'
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02526-3


'For years, the popular image of cannabis growers has been scruffy hippies getting high on their own supply in a disorganized underground economy, rather than shiny white industrial agriculture facilities. Even larger-scale operations involved minimal quality control or lacked formal record keeping.

But as legal medical — and increasingly, recreational — cannabis becomes more widespread, the cannabis industry is becoming more professional. By adopting the methods and rigour of plant science and analytical chemistry, it is ensuring that it can produce safe, consistent and high-quality products for a fast-growing and lucrative market.'
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02527-2


'Proponents and doubters agree that further research, including double-blind clinical trials, is needed to confirm whether the entourage effect exists and, if so, to understand how it works. “That way, you are taking out bias and expectation,” Wilson-Poe says.'
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02528-1

'The first major observation of our study was that the average concentration of THC in all states was two to three times the THC content known to be efficacious in the treatment of pain (i.e. >5–10%). The second major finding of our study was that a vast majority of products in all states, including medical-only programs, contained THC designed for recreational use (i.e. > 15%).'
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7098613/


'Cannabis sativa is a well-known plant species that has great economic and ecological significance. An incomplete genome of cloned C. sativa was obtained by using SOAPdenovo software in 2011. To further explore the utilization of this plant resource, we generated an updated draft genome sequence for wild-type varieties of C. sativa in China using PacBio single-molecule sequencing and Hi-C technology. Our assembled genome is approximately 808 Mb, with scaffold and contig N50 sizes of 83.00 Mb and 513.57 kb, respectively. Repetitive elements account for 74.75% of the genome. A total of 38,828 protein-coding genes were annotated, 98.20% of which were functionally annotated. We provide the first comprehensive de novo genome of wild-type varieties of C. sativa distributed in Tibet, China. Due to long-term growth in the wild environment, these varieties exhibit higher heterozygosity and contain more genetic information. This genetic resource is of great value for future investigations of cannabinoid metabolic pathways and will aid in promoting the commercial production of C. sativa and the effective utilization of cannabinoids. The assembled genome is also a valuable resource for intensively and effectively investigating the C. sativa genome further in the future.'
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7195422/

 

'Overall, the present special issue provides an overview and insight on pharmacological mechanisms and therapeutic potentials of cannabis, cannabinoid receptors, and eCB system. I believe that this special issue will promote further efforts to apply cannabinoid ligands as the therapeutic strategies for treating a variety of diseases.

Although concepts and accumulating lines of evidence have been established, the challenges still remain in the cannabinoid research field and clinical practice.'
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41401-019-0210-3


'In summary we report a simple, robust and reliable method for the chemical characterization of two classes of bioactive compounds in medical Cannabis samples, terpenoids and cannabinoids. Given the myriad of health conditions treated by medical marijuana, detailed and complete compositional analyses are essential to determine the efficacy of this material for those conditions, and the optimal strain for specific conditions. The opportunity to predict high CBD floral samples from analyses on vegetative leaves should be explored further as a way to help producers increase the availability of this medically important cannabinoid.'
http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0201119


'A composite view from these studies promises increased opportunities for developing therapies with greater molecular and cellular specificity and reveals a nexus between cannabinoids and cellular metabolism that might be critical to understanding the context dependence and diversity of cannabinoid functions.'
https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(16)31675-0
  

It is important to first try and preserve natural strains in places across the world where interbreeding has not happened in a big way yet since as this article says interbreeding and hybridization are a serious threat to cannabis plant diversity...

'In most cases, these classifications are used arbitrarily, the author states. "Categorizing cannabis as either 'sativa' and 'indica' has become an exercise in futility," he concludes.

"Ubiquitous interbreeding and hybridization renders their distinction meaningless."'
https://norml.org/news/2018/12/06/study-little-distinction-exists-among-sativa-or-indica


The wild ancestors probably exist in the places where they have grown naturally for thousands of years relatively undisturbed by our reckless economic development...hopefully they have not been destroyed by overzealous law enforcers...if you find them please don't patent them or genetically modify them instead preserve them, nurture them, promote them and share them locally at least...

'A big challenge for science is the lack of a wild ancestor for cannabis, Schwabe said. Wild varieties in other crops provide a baseline to see how a plant evolved from that point.

“It’s really hard as far as genetics go because we don’t have that missing piece,” Schwabe said. While many in the field are excited at the future prospects of genetic research in the plant, Schwabe is more cautious. She thinks there are too many unknowns in the genome.'
https://news.bloombergenvironment.com/environment-and-energy/pot-purveyors-seek-genetic-tweaks-as-legal-cannabis-grows


'While the genome of the cannabis plant was sequenced back in 2011, researchers have struggled to isolate the genes responsible for producing the plant's two most prominent chemicals. Until now. A joint Canadian-US effort has identified the genes that produce THC (the chemical in marijuana that gets people high) and CBD (the compound most well known for its medicinal applications).'
https://www.civilized.life/articles/researchers-finally-discover-the-genes-that-produce-thc-and-cbd-in-cannabis/


'Natural breeding enables all of the plant’s active and inactive compounds to thrive and interact synergistically to enhance the overall effects of cannabis, a result known as the “entourage effect,” according to the paper.

“The data supporting the existence of Cannabis synergy and the astounding plasticity of the Cannabis genome suggests a reality that obviates the need for alternative hosts, or even genetic engineering of Cannabis sativa, thus proving that, ‘the plant does it better,'” Russo wrote.'
https://www.marijuanamoment.net/why-calling-different-marijuana-types-strains-is-technically-wrong/


'Humulus is a plant that contains flowers called “hops,” commonly used as flavoring for beer. So it’s not the intoxicating ingredient, but it is a central component of the popular drink.

“A molecular clock analysis with chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) suggests Cannabis and Humulus diverged 27.8 [million years ago],” John M. McPartland, the study author, wrote. “Microfossil (fossil pollen) data point to a center of origin in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau.”'
https://www.marijuanamoment.net/a-main-ingredient-in-beer-used-to-be-marijuanas-sister-study-shows/


'Through genetic selection and advancements in growing technology, cannabis plants can now produce over 25% THC by dry weight—a substantial increase from the single-digit figures strains touted in decades past.

Ghost OG’s average THC content, according to lab data, pushes past 28%, the highest figure in the dataset.'
https://www.leafly.com/news/strains-products/the-strongest-cannabis-strain-according-to-lab-data


'“It’s such an interesting plant, such a valuable plant,” says Nolan Kane, who specializes in evolutionary biology. “It’s been around for millions of years, and it’s one of man’s oldest crops. And yet there are so many basic problems that need to be answered. Where did it come from? How and why did it evolve? Why does it make all these suites of compounds? We don’t even know how many species there are.”'
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2015/06/marijuana-science-drug-research-legality/


'None of the six of the most common terpenoids in Cannabis directly activated CB1 or CB2, or modulated the signalling of the phytocannabinoid agonist delta9-THC. These results suggest that if a phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effect exists, it is not at the CB1 or CB2 receptor level.

It remains possible that terpenoids activate CB1 and CB2 signalling pathways that do not involve potassium channels, however, it seems more likely that they may act at different molecular target(s) in the neuronal circuits important for the behavioural effect of Cannabis.'
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/569079v1.abstract



'For example, if you’ve ever smelled or tasted pine, lemon or pepper in your cannabis, you’ve experienced some of the many different terpenes known to exist in marijuana.'
https://mjbizdaily.com/onworking-how-terpenes-can-help-marijuana-companies-expand-product-and-revenue-opportunities/


'“I like to think it’s what a person would see if they were just a few microns tall, walking through these forests,” Kinsman told Tech Insider in an interview published on Friday.'
https://www.marijuanamoment.net/marijuana-looks-like-an-alien-world-under-an-electron-microscope/